Perilous Memories: The Asia-Pacific War(s). Ed. by T. Fujitani, Geoffrey M. White, and Lisa Yoneyama. (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001. viii, 462 pp. Cloth, $59.95, ISBN 0- 8223-2532-2. Paper, $19.95, ISBN 0-8223- 2564-0.)
The study of how stakeholders battle over memory has become in the last decade or so a booming historical field. The Asia-Pacific War has been a particularly contentious topic; witness, for example, the recent Korean and Chinese diplomatic protests against Japanese history textbooks that whitewash atrocities committed by the Imperial Army. Perilous Memories both joins the fray and furthers our scholarly understanding of this particular, highly complex, "memory war."
The book grew out of a conference held in 1995 to commemorate the end of World War II. The international lineup of contributors includes historians, cultural theorists, sociologists, anthropologists, specialists in communication studies, political scientists, and activists. As is typical for this kind of collection, the essays vary greatly in style and are of uneven quality. All, however, have intellectual worth, and indeed a number of them are outstanding.
The editors, T. Fujitani (historian), Geoffrey M. White (anthropologist), and Lisa Yoneyama (Japanese studies), offer a fine introduction. They outline, without too much trendy jargon, the ways in which memory is often messy and influenced by political and nationalist concerns. The inherent complexity of memory is compounded when examining the Asia-Pacific War because dozens of societies, none of them monolithic, were involved in the conflict. Throw in other complicating factors such as class, gender, race, ethnicity, nationalism, and decolonization-in short, the usual list of suspects-and the problem of memory becomes even more daunting.
Most often, the complexity has been flattened by the privileging of nationalist narra- tives that have been authored by the dominant powers that fought in Asia and the Pacific. The Asia-Pacific War(s) have usually been reduced to a binary epic in which the United States battled Japan. The contributors to this book instead seek to recover marginalized and silenced memories of the multiple wars that were fought throughout the region in the 1930s and 1940s. To rescue "endangered memories in need of recuperation" is to take a risky political stand because it challenges the master narrative; hence the dual meanings of "perilous memories."
The essays are grouped into three sections. In "Memory Fragments, Memory Images," five authors examine the internment of Japanese Americans, the Nanjing massacre, Okinawa, photographs of Pacific islanders, and Japan's commemorations of the Asia-Pacific Wars. In "Politics and Poetics of Liberation," six essays probe "Liberation Day" in Guam, Taiwanese and Koreans who fought in the Imperial Army, the Japanese occupation of Singapore, the American film Go for Broke (1951), and, oddly, given that the section focuses on "liberation," films on the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The third section, entitled "Atonement, Healing, and Unexpected Alliances," includes analyses of the controversy that surrounded the Smithsonian Institution's exhibition on the Enola Gay in 1995, the response of African Americans to the Asia- Pacific conflict, Korean survivors of the atomic attack on Hiroshima, and Korean comfort women, plus a complex and imaginative meditation on the memory of "East Asia's 'Great War"' penned by the historian Arif Dirlik.
Different readers will find particular essays of more value than others. Anyone interested, however, in the problem of memory and in the Asia-Pacific Wars will find much to like in Perilous Memories.
Jeffery C. Livingston California State University Chico, California
# Jeffery C. Livingston
# Reviewed work(s): Perilous Memories: The Asia-Pacific War(s) by T. Fujitani; Geoffrey M. White; Lisa Yoneyama
# The Journal of American History, Vol. 89, No. 3 (Dec., 2002), pp. 1112-1112
# Publisher: Organization of American Historians
# Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3092463
Perilous Memories: The Asia-Pacific War(s). Edited by T. Fujitani, Geoffrey M. White, and Lisa Yoneyama. (Durham, N.C., Duke Uni- versity Press, 2001. vi + 462 pp. $19.95)
Perilous Memories represents an important contribution to ongoing debates concerning World War II and its legacies. This collection of essays introduces hitherto marginalized ground-level perspectives on the mid-century struggle between Japan and the Allies as it ravaged and remade the Asia-Pacific region. More than an academic exercise, the task the editors set themselves is "to remind ourselves that the 'state of emergency' did not conclude with the cease fire or with formal decolonization. Instead, it has persisted into the present, even as most people of the dominant powers imagine that the world was made safe by the war's ending" (p. 21). While a reader of the proposal for this volume apparently expressed concern that this focus would obscure our understanding of the perpetrators of the Pacific War, the editors pointedly respond that, since the "voices of victims and victimizers are necessarily intertwined" (p. 4), grasping the big picture demands a close examination of what has been suppressed as well as what has been foregrounded in the war's meta-narratives.
"Memory as method" acts as the conceptual framework to bind together the essays, which deal with topics ranging from Japanese American internment and African American responses to the Pacific War to Taiwanese and Korean service in the Japanese imperial army and the contested meaning of "liberation" in Southeast Asia. This is not to say, however, that memory plays the same role in each essay: Direct testimonials occupy one end of the spectrum, while more abstract examinations of the operations of memory occupy the other. How, then, does memory provide a unifying method? While in the end memory serves more as inspiration or model than method in some of the essays, the editors eloquently make the following case: "[W]e are interested in exploring the processes through which past events acquire truthfulness and power by virtue of being represented, shared, debated, suppressed, and negotiated. By conceiving of memory in this way, we begin to see the complex and fluid relationships between what are identified as facts and their meanings, between historical knowledge and the struc- tures of power and desire within which they are enmeshed" (pp. 20-21).
The fresh materials and approach will attract and offer satisfaction to a wide scholarly readership. Moreover, given the clarity of the language and reasonable length of most of the essays, Perilous Memories would be suitable for use in college classrooms. A minor complaint is that the separation of the essays into three general sections entitled "Memory Fragments, Memory Images," "Politics and Poetics of Liberation," and "Atonement, Healing, and Unexpected Alliances" is not terribly compelling. Perhaps because these categories are a bit broad and vague, several of the essays seem as though they could fit equally well or better in a different section. Reorganization by topic, region, or approach to memory could put some of the essays in more vigorous dialogue with one another. Daqing Yang's superb essay on evolving views on the Nanjing Massacre in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, andJapan springs to mind as a piece that might be better served by being read in close conjunction with Lisa Yoneyama's thoughtful interrogation of ap- peals to "facticity" in the Smithsonian controversy. However, this is a small criticism intended to suggest ways in which professors might regroup these essays in the classroom.
University of California, Santa Cruz NORIKO ASO
# Noriko Aso
# Reviewed work(s): Perilous Memories: The Asia-Pacific War(s) by T. Fujitani; Geoffrey M. White; Lisa Yoneyama
# The Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 71, No. 4 (Nov., 2002), pp. 700-701
# Publisher: University of California Press
# Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3641663
Perilous Memories: The Asia-Pacific War(s). By T. FUJITANI, GEOFFREY WHITE, and LISA YONEYAMA. Durham: Duke University Press, 2001. 469 pp. $19.95 (paper).
The sixteen contributors to Perilous Memories have certainly complicated the tightly compacted package that has defined World War II history. Who are the victimizers and the victimized? Who are the liberated and their liberators? This volume leaves us with no easy answers to these questions. Indeed, the authors make valiant attempts to confuse the hitherto hegemonic answers that have surrounded these issues. The key to their understanding depends on the inquisitor, the memories that this person brings to the question at hand, and his or her perception(s) of"truth."
The hegemonic text of Second World War historiography has "pushed to the margins" a number of "events, experiences, and sentiments" (p. 5). Refocusing our discussion to incorporate the hitherto silenced histories of the war's minority participants reveals the relative significance of dates and events that define the "facts" of the fighting. Many people's "wars of liberation," for example, began long before the outbreak of war that brought the major powers to the fields of the conflict; their battles continued long after the ink of the peace treaties had dried. The task of this collection is to resurrect the memories of those peoples whose histories have been systematically "forgotten," the histories of those peoples whose stories conflict with this war's dominating picture.
The first of the three sections that divide this anthology, "Memory Fragments, Memory Images," sets the tone of the book: rather than place the victorious Allied (good) effort against the defeated Axis (evil) effort, this section demonstrates the Japanese as victims (U.S. internment) as well as victimizers (Nanjing Massacre) in the very first two chapters. Lamont Lindstrom's essay on Pacific Islander photography further complicates matters by suggesting that Americans and Japanese shared affinity in the images they used to portray the "native" islander to confirm their identity.
Part 2, "Politics and Poetics of Liberation," challenges the hegemonic history of the war by addressing the question of who was "liberated" from whom. Liberation for many is, in the words of Cecelia Perez, a "packed term" that means "different things to different people" (p. 161). The Nacion Chamoru of Guam, for example, "celebrate" the day that the United States drove the Japanese from their island as "Reoccupation Day." The people of Singapore and Malaysia emphasize liberation more in terms of British withdrawal, rather than Japanese defeat. Liberation for the Taiwanese and Korean soldier in the Japanese army came much later as, in the words of one veteran, they were "simply left in the battlefields, jungles, islands, and mountains . . . long after the Japanese troops had been sent home by American ships" (pp. 190-91).
Geoffrey White's article on the remaking of the Pearl Harbor film at the war memorial in Oahu, along with Lisa Yoneyama's treatment of the well-known Enola Gay Smithsonian saga, both present cases of how memories filtered through the hegemonic history have dominated the debate over how events are to be displayed. The process of making the Pearl Harbor film and planning the Enola Gay exhibition depict cases of what a number of authors allude to as an "arbitrary and selective amnesia" of United States history in their arguments to rescue the displays from "revisionist" intrusion.
The final section of Perilous Memories, titled "Atonement, Healing, and Unexpected Alliances," appears to be a catchall for the remaining papers. In two cases presented here, the comfort women and non-Japanese atomic bomb victims, "atonement" involves the government of the victimized picking up the tab for those under its care. George Lipsitz draws our attention to one "unexpected alliance": that of the American Black with the Japanese enemy. The author demonstrates this affinity as multidimensional, one fed from the dominant white race, as well as from suppressed peoples of color who believed that the fight against the Japanese was a precursor of a postwar fate that awaited them. Chungmoo Choi aptly concludes this section, and the volume, by emphasizing the victims' need to "open up and facilitate ... space so they can speak the pain of war memories and their subjectivity grounded on pain transformed" (p. 407).
Perilous Memories includes a number of topics that have received wide coverage in contemporary research, such as the Enola Gay controversy and the plight of the comfort women. It also includes a number of areas that may be less familiar to readers, such as the African American's identification with the "colored" Japanese enemy and many of the topics considered in the "liberation" section. One area that the editors might have considered exploring in more detail is the role played by compulsory education and textbooks in the formation of our memories. The authors succeed in broadening the scope of the Asian World War II experiences by amplifying the memories of hitherto seldom heard voices and in the process broaden the scope of responsibility for the wars fought over this period of time.
MARK CAPRIO Harvard University
# Mark Caprio
# Reviewed work(s): Perilous Memories: The Asia-Pacific War(s) by T. Fujitani; Geoffrey White; Lisa Yoneyama
# The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 62, No. 1 (Feb., 2003), pp. 203-205
# Publisher: Association for Asian Studies
# Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3096149
Wednesday, July 30, 2008
Tuesday, July 29, 2008
Nations and Nationalism since 1780
Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality. By E. J. Hobsbawm. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. l91p. $19.95.
Personal Identity, National Identity, and Inter- national Relations. By William Bloom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. l94p. $39.50.
These two slender volumes come to pro- foundly contrasting conclusions on the nature of nationalism. Bloom finds that it derives from individual needs for psychological iden- tification, whereas Hobsbawm interprets it as a creature of myth as much as reality, one shaped by the historical era that surrounds it. Both authors touch important dimensions of nationalism, yet in the hands of each it remains a phenomenon that defies full explication.
In the more intriguing of the two volumes, Hobsbawm traces the evolution of nationalism from the French Revolution to about 1950, with a brief concluding chapter on the last half of the twentieth century. Like Hobsbawm's earlier books on bandits and revolutionaries, this one reveals a sprightly wit and a warm sense of humor, perhaps especially because it is based on the Wiles Lectures that Hobsbawm delivered at the Queen's University of Belfast in 1985.
Besides a tone that often seems designed to delight a listening audience, Hobsbawm's work is thoughtful and provocative. Impor- tantly, he reiterates that we cannot take the literary statements of the elite to represent the past feelings of ordinary citizens, revealing his special deference to the sentiments of the rank- and-file. In the face of much of the evidence that he cites, Hobsbawm concludes that at the end of the twentieth century, nationalism "is no longer a major vector of historical develop- ment" (p. 163). A scholar concerned with the phenomenon of nationalism for decades, Hobsbawm uses specific cases to jar, surprise, and inform his readers: the founder of the Basque National party who had to learn the Basque language as an adult (p. 119), the query whether patriotism as measured by a willing- ness to die for the fatherland was really greater for the soldiers of William II or Hitler than for the Hessian mercenaries rented out by their prince in the American Revolution (p. 79), or the interpretation that the militant separatism in Quebec may in fact be "a surrogate for the lost traditional Catholicism" (p. 166).
In contrast to the historical diversity that Hobsbawm finds in nationalist phenomena, Bloom tends to reduce them to the issue of psy- chological identification. Stressing what he calls "identification theory," he claims that "what it may appear to lack in holism, it makes up for in clarity and parsimony" (pp. 57-58). The argument is that individuals seek psycho- logical security; they find this through na- tionalism, so that they act in concert in the interests of their national community. While Bloom traces this psychological dimension of nationalism in relation to many eras and issues and relates it quite helpfully to important writing on nationalism by other social scien- tists, it would be difficult to argue that his thesis on the overwhelming importance of this dimension is entirely convincing.
Bloom's book remains on such a high level of generality that some critics will find it want- ing. For example, he notes that Latin was the common language of Christendom in medieval England and France (p. 65), forgetting the vari- ous languages and dialects actually spoken at the time by most people in what today are those nations. Some U.S. realists will wince at his contention that they find "that human nature is essentially savage and aggressive" (p. 112). While Argentines would certainly admire this London scholar for referring at times to the Falkland Islands only as the Malvinas (p. 102), most would heartily disagree with his contention that Argentine generals had "no choice but invasion" of the islands in 1982 (p. 94). At the end of the volume, some will reject his conclusion, expressed with admirable candor, that "the notion that it is a glorious thing to die for one's country is a dangerous and terrible idea" (p. 163).
With this level of generality running throughout much of the book, Bloom tends to speak of national polities as undifferentiated aggregates, failing to probe in detail for their component groups that Hobsbawm delights in describing. The width of the literature that Bloom has consulted and integrated is impres- sive, but readers will find some of his conclu- sions controversial.
The criticisms that one might level at Hobsbawm's volume differ categorically. Hobsbawm is rich in historical detail but weak on theory, whereas Bloom is quite the reverse. For example, Hobsbawm's intellectual preferences would seem odd to most political scien- tists. He dismisses the writing of Karl Deutsch on nationalism with a single reference, while he cites the work of Otto Bauer four times, even complaining in a note (p. 2) that "unac- countably," the work of Bauer seems never to have been translated into English.
Despite these contrasts, the two volumes dovetail at some points. Hobsbawm notes that Shakespeare's "propagandist plays about English history" must in fact be considered in terms of modem patriotism (p. 75), while Bloom attempts to explain why a sense of patriotism arose in England and France in the centuries before Shakespeare and the Sun King (pp. 62-71). Both Bloom explicitly (pp. 11, 73) and Hobsbawm less explicitly (pp. 10, 78) argue that we must understand popular atti- tudes and values associated with nationalism and survey research; in fact, investigating na- tionalism through survey data should be one of the most fruitful lines of scholarship in the 1990s.
Overall, therefore, both of these volumes repay close reading, Bloom's for his emphasis upon psychological identification and his useful summing up of the social science litera- ture since the 1960s, and Hobsbawm for his awareness of the peculiarities and frequently the ironies of particular historical experiences. If the two books helpfully summarize-as of the end of the 1980s-approaches to the study of nationalism from the perspectives of social psychology and social history, they also sug- gest, explicitly or implicitly, that we must gather and analyze more empirical data on na- tionalism in the years ahead.
FREDERICK C. TURNER University of Connecticut
* Review: [untitled]
* Frederick C. Turner
* Reviewed work(s):
1.Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality by E. J. Hobsbawm
2. Personal Identity, National Identity, and International Relations by William Bloom
* The American Political Science Review, Vol. 85, No. 3 (Sep., 1991), pp. 1075-1076
* Publisher: American Political Science Association
* Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1963926
Hobsbawm, Eric J., 1990. Nations and National- ism since 1780: Programme, Myth and Reality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 191 pp.
For us in the early 1990s - an era of resurgent nationalism, this is a major historical analysis and overview of the myth and reality of nations and nationalism. Starting with earlier varieties of identity-formation, Hobsbawm introduces the concept of proto-nationalism as a means of grasp- ing non-state identity. The main part of the book is a historical-cum-analytical survey of national- ism in Europe the last two centuries, with oc- casional references to non-European claims to nationhood. Nationalism's linkage to revolution- ary ideals and institutions in early 19th-century France was in the late 19th century replaced by ethnicity-based identity (such as language, advo- cated primarily by Germans), and in many places made into a powerful tool for state-patriotism by states with increasing need for contact with their subjects in a time of democratization. With mass media, migration and higher living standards, Hobsbawm argues, the working class, too, became nationalist, as shown at the outbreak of World War I - to the trauma of many Socialist leaders. The Wilsonian ideal of language-based states is treated and analysed with reference to the creation of national languages. The strength of the book lies in the vast quantities of material treated, and its explicit references to the debates on 'the national question' within the Socialist camp. Most interesting, though perhaps not so novel, is the analysis of the national myth; how ideas of a glorious past and common, 'natural' identity could be partly created by writers and politicians, and also the comparison of this myth to identity-creating political movements. This book is an important and valuable contribution to our understanding of today's political events, such as in the Baltic states or in Yugoslavia.
# Review: [untitled]
# Arild Engelsen Ruud
# Reviewed work(s): Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth and Reality by Eric J. Hobsbawm
# Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 28, No. 3 (Aug., 1991), pp. 332-332
# Publisher: Sage Publications, Ltd.
Personal Identity, National Identity, and Inter- national Relations. By William Bloom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. l94p. $39.50.
These two slender volumes come to pro- foundly contrasting conclusions on the nature of nationalism. Bloom finds that it derives from individual needs for psychological iden- tification, whereas Hobsbawm interprets it as a creature of myth as much as reality, one shaped by the historical era that surrounds it. Both authors touch important dimensions of nationalism, yet in the hands of each it remains a phenomenon that defies full explication.
In the more intriguing of the two volumes, Hobsbawm traces the evolution of nationalism from the French Revolution to about 1950, with a brief concluding chapter on the last half of the twentieth century. Like Hobsbawm's earlier books on bandits and revolutionaries, this one reveals a sprightly wit and a warm sense of humor, perhaps especially because it is based on the Wiles Lectures that Hobsbawm delivered at the Queen's University of Belfast in 1985.
Besides a tone that often seems designed to delight a listening audience, Hobsbawm's work is thoughtful and provocative. Impor- tantly, he reiterates that we cannot take the literary statements of the elite to represent the past feelings of ordinary citizens, revealing his special deference to the sentiments of the rank- and-file. In the face of much of the evidence that he cites, Hobsbawm concludes that at the end of the twentieth century, nationalism "is no longer a major vector of historical develop- ment" (p. 163). A scholar concerned with the phenomenon of nationalism for decades, Hobsbawm uses specific cases to jar, surprise, and inform his readers: the founder of the Basque National party who had to learn the Basque language as an adult (p. 119), the query whether patriotism as measured by a willing- ness to die for the fatherland was really greater for the soldiers of William II or Hitler than for the Hessian mercenaries rented out by their prince in the American Revolution (p. 79), or the interpretation that the militant separatism in Quebec may in fact be "a surrogate for the lost traditional Catholicism" (p. 166).
In contrast to the historical diversity that Hobsbawm finds in nationalist phenomena, Bloom tends to reduce them to the issue of psy- chological identification. Stressing what he calls "identification theory," he claims that "what it may appear to lack in holism, it makes up for in clarity and parsimony" (pp. 57-58). The argument is that individuals seek psycho- logical security; they find this through na- tionalism, so that they act in concert in the interests of their national community. While Bloom traces this psychological dimension of nationalism in relation to many eras and issues and relates it quite helpfully to important writing on nationalism by other social scien- tists, it would be difficult to argue that his thesis on the overwhelming importance of this dimension is entirely convincing.
Bloom's book remains on such a high level of generality that some critics will find it want- ing. For example, he notes that Latin was the common language of Christendom in medieval England and France (p. 65), forgetting the vari- ous languages and dialects actually spoken at the time by most people in what today are those nations. Some U.S. realists will wince at his contention that they find "that human nature is essentially savage and aggressive" (p. 112). While Argentines would certainly admire this London scholar for referring at times to the Falkland Islands only as the Malvinas (p. 102), most would heartily disagree with his contention that Argentine generals had "no choice but invasion" of the islands in 1982 (p. 94). At the end of the volume, some will reject his conclusion, expressed with admirable candor, that "the notion that it is a glorious thing to die for one's country is a dangerous and terrible idea" (p. 163).
With this level of generality running throughout much of the book, Bloom tends to speak of national polities as undifferentiated aggregates, failing to probe in detail for their component groups that Hobsbawm delights in describing. The width of the literature that Bloom has consulted and integrated is impres- sive, but readers will find some of his conclu- sions controversial.
The criticisms that one might level at Hobsbawm's volume differ categorically. Hobsbawm is rich in historical detail but weak on theory, whereas Bloom is quite the reverse. For example, Hobsbawm's intellectual preferences would seem odd to most political scien- tists. He dismisses the writing of Karl Deutsch on nationalism with a single reference, while he cites the work of Otto Bauer four times, even complaining in a note (p. 2) that "unac- countably," the work of Bauer seems never to have been translated into English.
Despite these contrasts, the two volumes dovetail at some points. Hobsbawm notes that Shakespeare's "propagandist plays about English history" must in fact be considered in terms of modem patriotism (p. 75), while Bloom attempts to explain why a sense of patriotism arose in England and France in the centuries before Shakespeare and the Sun King (pp. 62-71). Both Bloom explicitly (pp. 11, 73) and Hobsbawm less explicitly (pp. 10, 78) argue that we must understand popular atti- tudes and values associated with nationalism and survey research; in fact, investigating na- tionalism through survey data should be one of the most fruitful lines of scholarship in the 1990s.
Overall, therefore, both of these volumes repay close reading, Bloom's for his emphasis upon psychological identification and his useful summing up of the social science litera- ture since the 1960s, and Hobsbawm for his awareness of the peculiarities and frequently the ironies of particular historical experiences. If the two books helpfully summarize-as of the end of the 1980s-approaches to the study of nationalism from the perspectives of social psychology and social history, they also sug- gest, explicitly or implicitly, that we must gather and analyze more empirical data on na- tionalism in the years ahead.
FREDERICK C. TURNER University of Connecticut
* Review: [untitled]
* Frederick C. Turner
* Reviewed work(s):
1.Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality by E. J. Hobsbawm
2. Personal Identity, National Identity, and International Relations by William Bloom
* The American Political Science Review, Vol. 85, No. 3 (Sep., 1991), pp. 1075-1076
* Publisher: American Political Science Association
* Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1963926
Hobsbawm, Eric J., 1990. Nations and National- ism since 1780: Programme, Myth and Reality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 191 pp.
For us in the early 1990s - an era of resurgent nationalism, this is a major historical analysis and overview of the myth and reality of nations and nationalism. Starting with earlier varieties of identity-formation, Hobsbawm introduces the concept of proto-nationalism as a means of grasp- ing non-state identity. The main part of the book is a historical-cum-analytical survey of national- ism in Europe the last two centuries, with oc- casional references to non-European claims to nationhood. Nationalism's linkage to revolution- ary ideals and institutions in early 19th-century France was in the late 19th century replaced by ethnicity-based identity (such as language, advo- cated primarily by Germans), and in many places made into a powerful tool for state-patriotism by states with increasing need for contact with their subjects in a time of democratization. With mass media, migration and higher living standards, Hobsbawm argues, the working class, too, became nationalist, as shown at the outbreak of World War I - to the trauma of many Socialist leaders. The Wilsonian ideal of language-based states is treated and analysed with reference to the creation of national languages. The strength of the book lies in the vast quantities of material treated, and its explicit references to the debates on 'the national question' within the Socialist camp. Most interesting, though perhaps not so novel, is the analysis of the national myth; how ideas of a glorious past and common, 'natural' identity could be partly created by writers and politicians, and also the comparison of this myth to identity-creating political movements. This book is an important and valuable contribution to our understanding of today's political events, such as in the Baltic states or in Yugoslavia.
# Review: [untitled]
# Arild Engelsen Ruud
# Reviewed work(s): Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth and Reality by Eric J. Hobsbawm
# Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 28, No. 3 (Aug., 1991), pp. 332-332
# Publisher: Sage Publications, Ltd.
Monday, July 28, 2008
The Tipping Point
The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference by Malcom Gladwell
For Gladwell, tipping points help to explain the social dynamics underlying the 'mysterious changes that mark everyday life,' that is, the 'magic moment' when ideas, messages or behaviors 'cross a threshold, tip and spread like wildfire' (p. 1)
Regarding South Asian Tsunami & reports on the disaster
The reporter continues, focusing on the relief efforts underway, and the survivors encountered by the Seahawk's military personnel...
For press critic Danny Schechter (2005), however, this particular news item is a typical example of what he calls 'helicopter journalism.'... 'What we need is "inside-out" and bottom up coverage - not just reporting from the clouds. (pp. 6-7).
In 1995, a time when news websites were typically little more than repositories of reports previously published elsewhere, the role of the internet in creating spaces for information to circulate that fateful day in April (Oklahoma City bombing) has since been hailed as a landmark moment in online history.
Topics touched in The rise of online news
*Breaking News
*scooping exclusives
*Of fact and fakery
*Immediacy, depth, interactivity
*Conforming authenticity
Online News by Studart Allan
For Gladwell, tipping points help to explain the social dynamics underlying the 'mysterious changes that mark everyday life,' that is, the 'magic moment' when ideas, messages or behaviors 'cross a threshold, tip and spread like wildfire' (p. 1)
Regarding South Asian Tsunami & reports on the disaster
The reporter continues, focusing on the relief efforts underway, and the survivors encountered by the Seahawk's military personnel...
For press critic Danny Schechter (2005), however, this particular news item is a typical example of what he calls 'helicopter journalism.'... 'What we need is "inside-out" and bottom up coverage - not just reporting from the clouds. (pp. 6-7).
In 1995, a time when news websites were typically little more than repositories of reports previously published elsewhere, the role of the internet in creating spaces for information to circulate that fateful day in April (Oklahoma City bombing) has since been hailed as a landmark moment in online history.
Topics touched in The rise of online news*Breaking News
*scooping exclusives
*Of fact and fakery
*Immediacy, depth, interactivity
*Conforming authenticity
Online News by Studart Allan
Sunday, July 27, 2008
The Location of Human Activities
Christian hostility toward the public realm, the tendency at least of early Christians to lead a life as far removed from the public realm as possible, can also be understood as a self-evident consequence of devotion to good works, independent of all beliefs and expectations. For it is manifest that the moment a good work becomes known and public, it loses its specific character of goodness, of being done for nothing but goodness' sake...
It may be this curious negative quality of goodness, the lack of outward phenomenal manifestation, that makes Jesus of Nazareth's appearance in history such a profoundly paradoxical event; it certainly seems to be the reason why he thought and taught that no man can be good...
We are reminded of Socrates' great insight that no man can be wise, out of which love for wisdom, or philo-sophy, was born; the whole life story of Jesus seems to testify how love for goodness arises of the insight that no man can be good (pp. 74-75).
It is this worldlessness inherent in good works that makes the lover of goodness and essentially religious figure and that makes goodness, like wisdom in antiquity, and essentially non-human, superhuman quality. And yet love of goodness of the few, just as loneliness, unlike solitude, is within the range of every man's experience. In a sense, therefore, goodness and loneliness are of much greater relevance to politics than wisdom and solitude; yet only solitude can become and authentic way of life in the figure of the philosopher, whereas the much more general experience of loneliness is so contradictory to the human condition of plurality that it is simply unbearable for any length of time and needs the company of God, the only imaginable witness of good works, if it is not to annihilate human existence together (p. 76).
But this manifestation, though it appears in the space where other activities are performed and depends upon it, is of an actively negative nature; fleeing the world and hiding from its inhabitants, it negates the space the world offers to men, and most of all that public part of it where everything and everybody are seen and heard by others. Goodness, therefore, as a consistent way of life, is not only impossible within the confines of the public realm, it is even destructive of it. Nobody perhaps has been more sharply aware of this ruinous quality of doing good than Marchiavelli...
Marchiavelli's criterion for political action was glory, the same as in classical antiquity, and badness can no more shine in glory than goodness. Therefore all methods by which "one may indeed gain power, but not glory" are bad. Badness that comes out of hiding is impudent and directly destroys the common world; goodness that comes out of hiding assumes a public role is no longer good, but corrupt in its own terms and will carry its own corruption where it goes. Thus, for Machiavelli, the reason for the Church's becoming a corrupting influence in Italian politics was her participation in secular affairs as such and not the individual corruptness of bishops and prelates... A reformed church therefore was even more dangerous in Machiavelli's eyes, and he looked with great respect but greater apprehension upon the religious revival of his time, the "new orders" which, by "saving religion from being destroyed by the licentiousness of the prelates and heads of the Church," teach people to be good and not "to resist evil" - which the result that "wicked rulers do as much evil as they please. (p. 77).
Arendt, H. (1958). Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
It may be this curious negative quality of goodness, the lack of outward phenomenal manifestation, that makes Jesus of Nazareth's appearance in history such a profoundly paradoxical event; it certainly seems to be the reason why he thought and taught that no man can be good...
We are reminded of Socrates' great insight that no man can be wise, out of which love for wisdom, or philo-sophy, was born; the whole life story of Jesus seems to testify how love for goodness arises of the insight that no man can be good (pp. 74-75).
It is this worldlessness inherent in good works that makes the lover of goodness and essentially religious figure and that makes goodness, like wisdom in antiquity, and essentially non-human, superhuman quality. And yet love of goodness of the few, just as loneliness, unlike solitude, is within the range of every man's experience. In a sense, therefore, goodness and loneliness are of much greater relevance to politics than wisdom and solitude; yet only solitude can become and authentic way of life in the figure of the philosopher, whereas the much more general experience of loneliness is so contradictory to the human condition of plurality that it is simply unbearable for any length of time and needs the company of God, the only imaginable witness of good works, if it is not to annihilate human existence together (p. 76).
But this manifestation, though it appears in the space where other activities are performed and depends upon it, is of an actively negative nature; fleeing the world and hiding from its inhabitants, it negates the space the world offers to men, and most of all that public part of it where everything and everybody are seen and heard by others. Goodness, therefore, as a consistent way of life, is not only impossible within the confines of the public realm, it is even destructive of it. Nobody perhaps has been more sharply aware of this ruinous quality of doing good than Marchiavelli...
Marchiavelli's criterion for political action was glory, the same as in classical antiquity, and badness can no more shine in glory than goodness. Therefore all methods by which "one may indeed gain power, but not glory" are bad. Badness that comes out of hiding is impudent and directly destroys the common world; goodness that comes out of hiding assumes a public role is no longer good, but corrupt in its own terms and will carry its own corruption where it goes. Thus, for Machiavelli, the reason for the Church's becoming a corrupting influence in Italian politics was her participation in secular affairs as such and not the individual corruptness of bishops and prelates... A reformed church therefore was even more dangerous in Machiavelli's eyes, and he looked with great respect but greater apprehension upon the religious revival of his time, the "new orders" which, by "saving religion from being destroyed by the licentiousness of the prelates and heads of the Church," teach people to be good and not "to resist evil" - which the result that "wicked rulers do as much evil as they please. (p. 77).
Arendt, H. (1958). Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
The Social and the Private
Common wealth, therefore, can never become common in the sense we speak of a common world; it remained, or rather was intended to remain, strictly private (p. 69).
In order to understand the danger to human existence from the elimination of the private realm, for which the intimate is not a very reliable substitute, it may be best to consider those non-private traits of privacy which are older than, and independent of, the discovery of intimacy (p. 70).
What is important to the public realm, however, is not the more or less enterprising spirit of private businessman but he fences around the houses and gardens of citizens. The invasion of privacy by society, the "socialization of man" (Marx), is most efficiently carried through by means of expropriation, but this is not the only way. Here in other aspects, the revolutionary measures of socialism or communism can very well be replaced by a slower and no less certain "withering away" of the private realm in general and of private property in particular (p. 72).
In order to understand the danger to human existence from the elimination of the private realm, for which the intimate is not a very reliable substitute, it may be best to consider those non-private traits of privacy which are older than, and independent of, the discovery of intimacy (p. 70).
What is important to the public realm, however, is not the more or less enterprising spirit of private businessman but he fences around the houses and gardens of citizens. The invasion of privacy by society, the "socialization of man" (Marx), is most efficiently carried through by means of expropriation, but this is not the only way. Here in other aspects, the revolutionary measures of socialism or communism can very well be replaced by a slower and no less certain "withering away" of the private realm in general and of private property in particular (p. 72).
Saturday, July 26, 2008
The Private Realm: Property
It is with respect to this multiple significance of the public realm that the term "private," in its original privative sense, has meaning. To live an entirely private life means above all to be deprived of things essential to a truly human life: to be deprived of the reality that comes from being seen and heard by others, to be deprived of an "objective" relationship with them that comes from being related to and separated from them through the intermediary of a common world of things, to be deprived of the possibility of achieving something more permanent than life itself. The privation of privacy lies in the absence of others; as far as they are concerned, private man does not appear, and therefore it is as though he did not exist. Whatever he does remains without significance and consequence to others, and what matters to him is without interest to other people (p. 58).
Under modern circumstances, this privation of "objective" relationship to others and of a reality guaranteed through them has become the mass phenomenon of loneliness, where it has assumed its most extreme and most antihuman form. The reason for this extremity is that mass society not only destroys the public realm but the private as well, deprives men not only of their place in the world but of their private home, where they once felt sheltered against the world and where, at any rate, even those excluded from the world could find a substitute in the warmth of the hearth and the limited reality of family life. The full development of the life of hearth and family into an inner and private space we owe to the extraordinary political sense of the Roman people who, unlike the Greeks, never sacrificed the private to the public, but on the contrary understood that these two realms could exist only the form of coexistence (p. 59).
It is a matter of course that the privative trait of privacy, the consciousness of being deprived of something essential in a life spent exclusively in the restricted sphere of the household, should have been weakened almost to the point of extinction by the rise of Christianity. Christian morality, as distinguished from its fundamental religious precepts, has always insisted that everybody should mind his own business and that political responsibility constituted first of all burden, undertaken exclusively for the sake of the well-being and salvation of those it freed from worry about public affairs (p. 60).
It is therefore easy to forget that wealth and property, far from being the same, are of an entirely different nature. The present emergence everywhere of actually or potentially very wealthy societies which at the same time are essentially propertyless, because the wealth of any single individual consists of his share in the annual income of society as a whole, clearly shows how little these two things are connected.
The wealth of a foreigner or a slave was under no circumstances a substitute for this property, and poverty did not deprive the head of a family of this location in the world and the citizenship resulting from it. In early times, if he happened to lose his location, he almost automatically lost his citizenship and the protection of the law as well (p. 62).
The non-privative trait of the household realm originally lay in its being the realm of birth and death which must be hidden from the public realm because it harbors the things hidden from human eyes and impenetrable to human knowledge (p. 62).
Private wealth, therefore, became a condition for admission to public life not because its owner was engaged in accumulating it but, on the contrary, because it assured with reasonable certainty that its owner would not have to engage in providing for himself the means of use and consumption and was free for public activity...
The means to take care of them was labor, and the wealth of a person therefore was frequently counted in terms of the number of laborers, that is, slaves, he owned. To own property meant here to be master over one's own necessities of life and therefore potentially to be a free person, free to transcend his own life and enter the world all have in common...
If the property-owner chose to enlarge his property instead of using it up in leading a political life, it was as though he willingly sacrificed his freedom and became voluntarily what the slave was against his own will, a servant of necessity (p. 65).
It is not an invention of Karl Marx but actually in the very nature of this society itself that privacy in every sense can only hinder the development of social "productivity" and that considerations of private ownership therefore should be overruled in favor of the ever-increasing process of social wealth (p, 67).
Arendt, H. (1958). Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Under modern circumstances, this privation of "objective" relationship to others and of a reality guaranteed through them has become the mass phenomenon of loneliness, where it has assumed its most extreme and most antihuman form. The reason for this extremity is that mass society not only destroys the public realm but the private as well, deprives men not only of their place in the world but of their private home, where they once felt sheltered against the world and where, at any rate, even those excluded from the world could find a substitute in the warmth of the hearth and the limited reality of family life. The full development of the life of hearth and family into an inner and private space we owe to the extraordinary political sense of the Roman people who, unlike the Greeks, never sacrificed the private to the public, but on the contrary understood that these two realms could exist only the form of coexistence (p. 59).
It is a matter of course that the privative trait of privacy, the consciousness of being deprived of something essential in a life spent exclusively in the restricted sphere of the household, should have been weakened almost to the point of extinction by the rise of Christianity. Christian morality, as distinguished from its fundamental religious precepts, has always insisted that everybody should mind his own business and that political responsibility constituted first of all burden, undertaken exclusively for the sake of the well-being and salvation of those it freed from worry about public affairs (p. 60).
It is therefore easy to forget that wealth and property, far from being the same, are of an entirely different nature. The present emergence everywhere of actually or potentially very wealthy societies which at the same time are essentially propertyless, because the wealth of any single individual consists of his share in the annual income of society as a whole, clearly shows how little these two things are connected.
The wealth of a foreigner or a slave was under no circumstances a substitute for this property, and poverty did not deprive the head of a family of this location in the world and the citizenship resulting from it. In early times, if he happened to lose his location, he almost automatically lost his citizenship and the protection of the law as well (p. 62).
The non-privative trait of the household realm originally lay in its being the realm of birth and death which must be hidden from the public realm because it harbors the things hidden from human eyes and impenetrable to human knowledge (p. 62).
Private wealth, therefore, became a condition for admission to public life not because its owner was engaged in accumulating it but, on the contrary, because it assured with reasonable certainty that its owner would not have to engage in providing for himself the means of use and consumption and was free for public activity...
The means to take care of them was labor, and the wealth of a person therefore was frequently counted in terms of the number of laborers, that is, slaves, he owned. To own property meant here to be master over one's own necessities of life and therefore potentially to be a free person, free to transcend his own life and enter the world all have in common...
If the property-owner chose to enlarge his property instead of using it up in leading a political life, it was as though he willingly sacrificed his freedom and became voluntarily what the slave was against his own will, a servant of necessity (p. 65).
It is not an invention of Karl Marx but actually in the very nature of this society itself that privacy in every sense can only hinder the development of social "productivity" and that considerations of private ownership therefore should be overruled in favor of the ever-increasing process of social wealth (p, 67).
Arendt, H. (1958). Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Friday, July 25, 2008
The Public Realm: The Common
The term "public"... means, first, that everything that appears in public can be seen and heard by everybody and has the widest possible publicity (p. 50).
Since our feeling for reality depends utterly upon appearance and therefore upon the existence of a public realm into which things can appear out of the darkness of sheltered existence, even the twilight which illuminates our private and intimate lives is ultimately derived from the much harsher light of the public realm. Yet there are a great many things which cannot withstand the implacable, bright light of the constant presence of others on the public scene; there, only what is considered to be relevant, worthy of being seen or heard, can be tolerated, so that the irrelevant becomes automatically a private matter. This, to be sure, does not mean that private concerns are generally irrelevant; on the contrary, we shall see that there are very relevant matters which can survive only in the realm of the private. For instance, love, in distinction from friendship, is killed, or rather extinquished, the moment it is displayed in public. ("Never seek to tell thy love / Love that never told can be.") Because of its inherent worldlessness, love can only become false and perverted when it is used for political purposes such as the change or salvation of the world.
What the public realm considers irrelevant can have such an extraordinary and infectious charm that a whole people may adopt it as their way of life, without for that reason changing its essentially private character. Modern enchantment with "small things," though preached by early twentieth-century poetry in almost all European tongues, has found its classical presentation in the petit bonheur of the French people. Since the decay of their once great and glorious public realm, the French have become masters of their art of being happy among "small things," within the space of their own four walls, between chest and bed, table and chair, dog and cat and flowerpot, extending to these things a care and tenderness which, in a world where rapid industrialization constantly kills off the things of yesterday to produce today's objects, may even appear to be the world's last, purely human corner (p. 52)
Second,
the term "public" signifies the world itself, in so far as it is common to all of us and distinguished from our privately owned place in it...
The public realm, as the common world, gather us together and yet prevents our falling over each other, so to speak. What makes mass society so difficult to bear is not the number of people involved, or at least not primarily, but the fact that the world between them has lost its power to gather them together, to relate and to separate them (pp. 52-43).
The unpolitical, non-public character of the Christian community was early defined in the demand that it should form a corpus, a "body," whose members were to be related to each other like brothers of the same family (p. 53)
Through many ages before us - but now not any more - men entered the public realm because they wanted something of their own or something they had in common with others to be more permanent than their earthly lives. (Thus, the curse of slavery consisted not only in being deprived of freedom and of visibility, but also in the fear of these obscure people themselves "that from being obscure they should pass away away leaving leaving no trace that they have existed") (p. 55).
What the modern age thought of the public realm, after the spectacular rise of society to public prominence, was expressed by Adam Smith when, with disarming sincerity, he mentions "that unprosperous race of men commonly called men of letters" for whom "public admiration...makes always a part of their reward..., a considerable part... in the profession of physic; a still greater perhaps in that of law; in poetry and philosophy it makes almost the whole." Here it is self-evident that public admiration and monetary reward are of the same nature and can become substitutes for each other...public admiration is consumed by individual vanity as food is consumed by hunger.
Obviously, from this viewpoint the test of reality does not lie in the public presence of others, but rather in the greater or lesser urgency of needs to whose existence or non-existence nobody can ever testify except the one who happens to suffer them. And since the need for food has its demonstrable basis of reality in the life process itself, it is also obvious that the entirely subjective pangs of hunger are more real than "vainglory," as Hobbs used to call the need for public admiration (pp. 56-57).
For though the common world is the common meeting ground of all, those who are present have different locations in it, and the location of one can no more coincide with the location of another than the location of two objects. Being seen and being heard by others drive their significance from the fact that everybody sees and hears from a different position. This is the meaning of public life, compared to which even the richest and most satisfying family life can offer only the prolongation or multiplication of one's own position with its attending aspects and perspectives. The subjectivity of privacy can be prolonged and multiplied in a family, it can even become so strong that its weight is felt in the public realm; but this family "world" can never replace the reality rising out of the sum total of aspects presented by one object or to a multitude of aspects (p. 57).
Only where things can be seen by many in variety of aspects without changing their identity, so that those who are gathered around them know they see sameness in utter diversity, can worldly reality truly and reliably appear (p. 57).
Under the conditions of a common world, reality is not guaranteed primarily by the "common nature" of all men who constitute it, but rather by the fact that, differences of position and the resulting variety of perspectives notwithstanding, everybody is always concerned with the same object. If the sameness of the object can no longer be discerned, no common nature of men, least of all the unnatural conformism of a mass society, can prevent the destruction of the common world, which is usually preceded by the destruction of the many aspects in which it presents itself to human plurality (p. 58).
Arendt, H. (1958). Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Since our feeling for reality depends utterly upon appearance and therefore upon the existence of a public realm into which things can appear out of the darkness of sheltered existence, even the twilight which illuminates our private and intimate lives is ultimately derived from the much harsher light of the public realm. Yet there are a great many things which cannot withstand the implacable, bright light of the constant presence of others on the public scene; there, only what is considered to be relevant, worthy of being seen or heard, can be tolerated, so that the irrelevant becomes automatically a private matter. This, to be sure, does not mean that private concerns are generally irrelevant; on the contrary, we shall see that there are very relevant matters which can survive only in the realm of the private. For instance, love, in distinction from friendship, is killed, or rather extinquished, the moment it is displayed in public. ("Never seek to tell thy love / Love that never told can be.") Because of its inherent worldlessness, love can only become false and perverted when it is used for political purposes such as the change or salvation of the world.
What the public realm considers irrelevant can have such an extraordinary and infectious charm that a whole people may adopt it as their way of life, without for that reason changing its essentially private character. Modern enchantment with "small things," though preached by early twentieth-century poetry in almost all European tongues, has found its classical presentation in the petit bonheur of the French people. Since the decay of their once great and glorious public realm, the French have become masters of their art of being happy among "small things," within the space of their own four walls, between chest and bed, table and chair, dog and cat and flowerpot, extending to these things a care and tenderness which, in a world where rapid industrialization constantly kills off the things of yesterday to produce today's objects, may even appear to be the world's last, purely human corner (p. 52)
Second,
the term "public" signifies the world itself, in so far as it is common to all of us and distinguished from our privately owned place in it...
The public realm, as the common world, gather us together and yet prevents our falling over each other, so to speak. What makes mass society so difficult to bear is not the number of people involved, or at least not primarily, but the fact that the world between them has lost its power to gather them together, to relate and to separate them (pp. 52-43).
The unpolitical, non-public character of the Christian community was early defined in the demand that it should form a corpus, a "body," whose members were to be related to each other like brothers of the same family (p. 53)
Through many ages before us - but now not any more - men entered the public realm because they wanted something of their own or something they had in common with others to be more permanent than their earthly lives. (Thus, the curse of slavery consisted not only in being deprived of freedom and of visibility, but also in the fear of these obscure people themselves "that from being obscure they should pass away away leaving leaving no trace that they have existed") (p. 55).
What the modern age thought of the public realm, after the spectacular rise of society to public prominence, was expressed by Adam Smith when, with disarming sincerity, he mentions "that unprosperous race of men commonly called men of letters" for whom "public admiration...makes always a part of their reward..., a considerable part... in the profession of physic; a still greater perhaps in that of law; in poetry and philosophy it makes almost the whole." Here it is self-evident that public admiration and monetary reward are of the same nature and can become substitutes for each other...public admiration is consumed by individual vanity as food is consumed by hunger.
Obviously, from this viewpoint the test of reality does not lie in the public presence of others, but rather in the greater or lesser urgency of needs to whose existence or non-existence nobody can ever testify except the one who happens to suffer them. And since the need for food has its demonstrable basis of reality in the life process itself, it is also obvious that the entirely subjective pangs of hunger are more real than "vainglory," as Hobbs used to call the need for public admiration (pp. 56-57).
For though the common world is the common meeting ground of all, those who are present have different locations in it, and the location of one can no more coincide with the location of another than the location of two objects. Being seen and being heard by others drive their significance from the fact that everybody sees and hears from a different position. This is the meaning of public life, compared to which even the richest and most satisfying family life can offer only the prolongation or multiplication of one's own position with its attending aspects and perspectives. The subjectivity of privacy can be prolonged and multiplied in a family, it can even become so strong that its weight is felt in the public realm; but this family "world" can never replace the reality rising out of the sum total of aspects presented by one object or to a multitude of aspects (p. 57).
Only where things can be seen by many in variety of aspects without changing their identity, so that those who are gathered around them know they see sameness in utter diversity, can worldly reality truly and reliably appear (p. 57).
Under the conditions of a common world, reality is not guaranteed primarily by the "common nature" of all men who constitute it, but rather by the fact that, differences of position and the resulting variety of perspectives notwithstanding, everybody is always concerned with the same object. If the sameness of the object can no longer be discerned, no common nature of men, least of all the unnatural conformism of a mass society, can prevent the destruction of the common world, which is usually preceded by the destruction of the many aspects in which it presents itself to human plurality (p. 58).
Arendt, H. (1958). Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Tuesday, July 22, 2008
Much Ado About Nothing
ํ์๋
"Much Ado About Nothing" is a comedy by William Shakespeare. First published in 1600, it is likely to have been first performed in the autumn or winter of 1598-1599, and it remains one of Shakespeare's most enduring and exhilarating plays on stage. Stylistically, it shares numerous characteristics with modern romantic comedies including the two pairs of lovers, in this case the romantic leads, Claudio and Hero, and their comic counterparts, Benedick and Beatrice.
Infidelity
A theme common to Much Ado about Nothing and many other of Shakespeare’s works is cuckoldry, or infidelity of a wife. Several of the characters seem to be obsessed by the idea that a man has no way to know if his wife is unfaithful, and therefore women can take full advantage of that fact. Don John plays upon Claudio’s pride and fear of cuckoldry, which leads to the disastrous first wedding scene. Because of their mistrust of women’s sexuality, many of the males easily believe that Hero is impure, and even her father readily condemns her with very little proof. This motif runs through the play, most often in references to horns, which were a well-known symbol of cuckoldry.
from Wikipedia
"Much Ado About Nothing" is a comedy by William Shakespeare. First published in 1600, it is likely to have been first performed in the autumn or winter of 1598-1599, and it remains one of Shakespeare's most enduring and exhilarating plays on stage. Stylistically, it shares numerous characteristics with modern romantic comedies including the two pairs of lovers, in this case the romantic leads, Claudio and Hero, and their comic counterparts, Benedick and Beatrice.
Infidelity
A theme common to Much Ado about Nothing and many other of Shakespeare’s works is cuckoldry, or infidelity of a wife. Several of the characters seem to be obsessed by the idea that a man has no way to know if his wife is unfaithful, and therefore women can take full advantage of that fact. Don John plays upon Claudio’s pride and fear of cuckoldry, which leads to the disastrous first wedding scene. Because of their mistrust of women’s sexuality, many of the males easily believe that Hero is impure, and even her father readily condemns her with very little proof. This motif runs through the play, most often in references to horns, which were a well-known symbol of cuckoldry.
from Wikipedia
Monday, July 21, 2008
Capital Crisis in the Profitable Newspaper Industry
from Goodbye Gutenberg
By Robert G. Picard
In many instances, management, journalists and industry critics appear to have a skewed vision of what it is that investors expect. About 90 percent of shares in newspaper companies today are held by institutional investors—pension and investment funds, insurance companies, and financial institutions. Although those who are critics of public ownership often accuse these institutions of only being interested in short-term profits, the truth actually lies somewhere else. What these investors are looking for is a good return on their money; to get that they are willing to trade short-term profit for long-term growth and stability.
But most publicly traded newspaper companies offer no credible plans (or a vision)for anything beyond the delivery of higher-than-average quarterly profits. With this mentality in place, investors pressure boards and managers for high returns so that they can recoup their investments in a shorter period of time.
Newspapers have tried to improve their market conditions in recent years by altering journalistic content and its presentation, by improving customer service and slightly altering their business models. These actions have been quite limited and relatively weak efforts to woo readers, soothe investors, and give the impression of active managerial responses to the changing environment. Few real innovations to expand markets, reach new audiences, or provide new products related to company growth and sustainability have actually been made. In short, such surface change has done little to alter negative investor perceptions of the industry.
Concurrent with these limited innovative efforts has been a constant and deleterious chipping away of resources within newspapers. But such measures are only effective if they are accompanied by strategy-driven reorganization and reconfiguration that produces new value, improves the quality of products and services, creates something new, and attracts new customers. Such enterprise is what appeals to investors. Yet newspaper executives are rarely engaged in this developmental part of the change process; instead cost cutting is their standard annual activity. This, however, abets uninterested investors by draining resources from newspapers they believe have a limited (or no) future and leaves newspaper enterprises without sufficient resources
to renew themselves. The prospect of demise, coupled with the lack of strategic vision, becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Robert G. Picard is Hamrin Professor of Media Economics and director of the Media Management and Transformation Centre at Jonkoping International Business School, Jonkoping University, Sweden. In the spring he was a fellow at Harvard University's
Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics & Public Policy and is the author and editor of 20 books on media economics and editor of the Journal of Media Business Studies. His Shorenstein report on this topic can be read at www.ksg.harvard.edu/presspol/research publications/papers.htm
Picard, R. (2006, Winter2006). Capital Crisis in the Profitable Newspaper Industry. Nieman Reports, 60(4), 10-12. Retrieved July 28, 2008, from Communication & Mass Media Complete database.
By Robert G. Picard
In many instances, management, journalists and industry critics appear to have a skewed vision of what it is that investors expect. About 90 percent of shares in newspaper companies today are held by institutional investors—pension and investment funds, insurance companies, and financial institutions. Although those who are critics of public ownership often accuse these institutions of only being interested in short-term profits, the truth actually lies somewhere else. What these investors are looking for is a good return on their money; to get that they are willing to trade short-term profit for long-term growth and stability.
But most publicly traded newspaper companies offer no credible plans (or a vision)for anything beyond the delivery of higher-than-average quarterly profits. With this mentality in place, investors pressure boards and managers for high returns so that they can recoup their investments in a shorter period of time.
Newspapers have tried to improve their market conditions in recent years by altering journalistic content and its presentation, by improving customer service and slightly altering their business models. These actions have been quite limited and relatively weak efforts to woo readers, soothe investors, and give the impression of active managerial responses to the changing environment. Few real innovations to expand markets, reach new audiences, or provide new products related to company growth and sustainability have actually been made. In short, such surface change has done little to alter negative investor perceptions of the industry.
Concurrent with these limited innovative efforts has been a constant and deleterious chipping away of resources within newspapers. But such measures are only effective if they are accompanied by strategy-driven reorganization and reconfiguration that produces new value, improves the quality of products and services, creates something new, and attracts new customers. Such enterprise is what appeals to investors. Yet newspaper executives are rarely engaged in this developmental part of the change process; instead cost cutting is their standard annual activity. This, however, abets uninterested investors by draining resources from newspapers they believe have a limited (or no) future and leaves newspaper enterprises without sufficient resources
to renew themselves. The prospect of demise, coupled with the lack of strategic vision, becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Robert G. Picard is Hamrin Professor of Media Economics and director of the Media Management and Transformation Centre at Jonkoping International Business School, Jonkoping University, Sweden. In the spring he was a fellow at Harvard University's
Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics & Public Policy and is the author and editor of 20 books on media economics and editor of the Journal of Media Business Studies. His Shorenstein report on this topic can be read at www.ksg.harvard.edu/presspol/research publications/papers.htm
Picard, R. (2006, Winter2006). Capital Crisis in the Profitable Newspaper Industry. Nieman Reports, 60(4), 10-12. Retrieved July 28, 2008, from Communication & Mass Media Complete database.
Sunday, July 20, 2008
The Rise of Social 3
Since the rise of society, sine the admission of household and housekeeping activities to the public realm, an irresistible tendency to grow, to devour the older realms of the political and private as well as the more recently established sphere of intimacy, has been one of the outstanding characteristics of the new realm. This constanct growth, whose no less constant acceleration we can observe over at least three centuries, derives its strength from the fact that through society it is the life process itself which in one form or another has been channeled into the public realm. The private realm of the household was the sphere where the necessities of life, of individual survival as well as of continuity of the speicies, were taken care of and guaranteed. One of the characteristics of privacy, prior to the discovery of the intimate, was that man existed in this sphere not as truly human being but only as a specimen of the animal species man-kind. This, precisely, was the ultimate reason for the tremendous contempt held for it by antiquity. The emergence of society has changed the estimate of this whole sphere but has hardly transformed its nature. The monolithic character of every type of society, its conformism which allows for only one interest and one opinion, is ultimately rooted in the one-ness of man-kind. It is because this one-ness of man-kind is not fantasy and not even merely a scientific hypothesis, as in the "communistic fiction" of classical economics, that mass society, where man as a social animal rules supreme and where apparently the survival of the species could be guaranteed on world-wide scale, can at the same threaten humanity with extinction (pp. 45-46),
Society is the form in which the fact of mutual dependence for the sake of life and nothing else assumes public significance and where the activities connected with sheer survival are permitted to appear in public (p. 46).
While we have become excellent in the laboring we perform in public, our capacity for action and speech has lost much of its former quality since the rise of the social realm banished these into the sphere of the intimate and the private (p. 49).
Arendt, H. (1958). Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Society is the form in which the fact of mutual dependence for the sake of life and nothing else assumes public significance and where the activities connected with sheer survival are permitted to appear in public (p. 46).
While we have become excellent in the laboring we perform in public, our capacity for action and speech has lost much of its former quality since the rise of the social realm banished these into the sphere of the intimate and the private (p. 49).
Arendt, H. (1958). Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
The Rise of Social 2
The uniform behavior that lends itself to statistical determination, and therefore to scientifically correct prediction, can hardly be explained by the liberal hypothesis of a natural "harmony of interests," the foundation of "classical economies; it was not Karl Marx but the economists themselves who had to introduce the "communistic fiction," that is, to assume that there is one interest of society as a whole which with "an invisible hand" guides the behavior of men and produces the harmony of their conflicting interests. The difference between Marx and his forerunners was only that he took the reality of conflict, as it presented itself in the society of his time, as seriously as the hypothetical fiction of harmony; he was right in concluding that the "socializaion of man" would produce automatically a harmony of all interests, and was only more courageous than his liberal teachers when he proposed to establish in reality the "communistic fiction" underlying all economic studies.
Obviously, what prevented society from smooth functioning was only certain traditional remnants that interfered and still influenced the behavior of "backward" classes. From the viewpoints of society, these were merely disturbing factors in the way of a full development of "social forces"; they no longer corresponded to reality and were therefore, in a sense, much more "fictitious" than the scientific "fiction" of one interest.
A complete victory of society will always produce some sort of "communistic fiction," whose outstanding political characteristic is that it is indeed ruled by an "invisible hand," namely, by nobody. What we traditionally call state and government gives place here to pure administration - a state of affairs which Marx rightly predicted as the "withering away of the state," though he was wrong in assuming that only a revolution could bring it about, and even more wrong when he believed that this complete victory of society would mean the eventual emergence of the "realm of freedom" (pp. 44-45).
Arendt, H. (1958). Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Obviously, what prevented society from smooth functioning was only certain traditional remnants that interfered and still influenced the behavior of "backward" classes. From the viewpoints of society, these were merely disturbing factors in the way of a full development of "social forces"; they no longer corresponded to reality and were therefore, in a sense, much more "fictitious" than the scientific "fiction" of one interest.
A complete victory of society will always produce some sort of "communistic fiction," whose outstanding political characteristic is that it is indeed ruled by an "invisible hand," namely, by nobody. What we traditionally call state and government gives place here to pure administration - a state of affairs which Marx rightly predicted as the "withering away of the state," though he was wrong in assuming that only a revolution could bring it about, and even more wrong when he believed that this complete victory of society would mean the eventual emergence of the "realm of freedom" (pp. 44-45).
Arendt, H. (1958). Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Saturday, July 19, 2008
The Rise of Social 1
But the background of actual political experience, at least in Plato and Aristotle, remained so strong that the distinction between the spheres of household and political life was never doubted. Without mastering the necessities of life in the household, neither life nor the "good life" is possible, but politics is never for the sake of life. As far as the members of the polis are concerned, household life exists for the sake of the "good life" in the polis (p. 37).
Not only would we not agree with the Greeks that a life spent in the privacy of "one's own" (idion), outside the world of the common, is "idiotic" by definition, or with the Romans to whom privacy offered buy a temporary refuge from the business of the res publica: we call private today a sphere of intimacy whose beginnings we may be able to trace back to late Roman, though hardly to any period of Greek antiquity, but whose peculiar manifoldness and variety were certainly unknown to any period prior to the modern age...The decisive historical fact is that modern privacy is its most relevant function, to shelter the intimate, was discovered as the opposite not of the political sphere but of the social, to which it is therefore more closely and authentically related (p. 38).
The striking coincidence of the rise of society with the decline of the family indicates clearly that what actually took place was the absorption of the family unit into corresponding social groups. The equality among peers, resembles nothing so much as the equality of household members before the despotic power of the household head, except that in society, where the natural strength of one common interest and one unanimous opinion in tremendously enforced by sheer number, actual rule exerted by one man, representing the common interest and the right opinion, could eventually be dispensed with. The phenomenon of conformism is characteristic of the last stage of this modern development (p. 40).
This modern equality, based on the conformism inherent in society and possible only because behavior has replaced action as the foremost mode of human relationship, is in every respect different from equality in antiquity, and notably in the Greek city-states. To belong to the few "equals" (homoioi) meant to be permitted to live among one's peers; but the public realm itself , the polis, was permeated by a fiercely agonal spriit, where everybody had constantly to distinguish himself from all others, to show through unique deeds or achievements that he was the best of all (aien aristeuein) (p. 41).
It is the same conformism, the assumption that men behave and do not act with respect to each other, that lies at the root of the modern science of economics, whose birth coincided with the rise of society and which, together with its chief technical tool, statistics, became the social science par excellence. Economics-until the modern age a not too important part of ethics and politics and based on the assumption that men act with respect to their economic activities as they in every other respect-could achieve a scientific character only when men had become social beings and unanimously followed certain patterns of behavior, so that those who did not keep the rules could be considered to be asocial or abnormal (pp. 41-42).
The law of statistics are valid only where large numbers or long periods are involved, and acts or events can statistically appear only as deviations or fluctuations. The justification of statistics is that deeds and events are rare occurrences in everyday life and in history. Yet the meaningfulness of everyday relationships is disclosed not in everyday life but in rare deeds, just as the significance of a historical period shows itself only in the few events that illuminate it. The application of the law of large numbers and long periods to politics or history signifies nothing less than the wilful obliterations of their very subject matter, and it is a hopeless enterprise to search for meaning in politics or significance in history when everything that is not everyday behavior or automatic trends has been ruled out as immaterial (pp. 42-43).
However, since the laws of statistics are perfectly valid where we deal with large numbers, it is obvious that every increase in population means an increased validity and a marked decrease of "deviation." Politically, this means that the larger the population in any given body politic, the more likely it will be the social rather than the political that constitutes the public realm (p. 43).
Arendt, H. (1958). Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Not only would we not agree with the Greeks that a life spent in the privacy of "one's own" (idion), outside the world of the common, is "idiotic" by definition, or with the Romans to whom privacy offered buy a temporary refuge from the business of the res publica: we call private today a sphere of intimacy whose beginnings we may be able to trace back to late Roman, though hardly to any period of Greek antiquity, but whose peculiar manifoldness and variety were certainly unknown to any period prior to the modern age...The decisive historical fact is that modern privacy is its most relevant function, to shelter the intimate, was discovered as the opposite not of the political sphere but of the social, to which it is therefore more closely and authentically related (p. 38).
The striking coincidence of the rise of society with the decline of the family indicates clearly that what actually took place was the absorption of the family unit into corresponding social groups. The equality among peers, resembles nothing so much as the equality of household members before the despotic power of the household head, except that in society, where the natural strength of one common interest and one unanimous opinion in tremendously enforced by sheer number, actual rule exerted by one man, representing the common interest and the right opinion, could eventually be dispensed with. The phenomenon of conformism is characteristic of the last stage of this modern development (p. 40).
This modern equality, based on the conformism inherent in society and possible only because behavior has replaced action as the foremost mode of human relationship, is in every respect different from equality in antiquity, and notably in the Greek city-states. To belong to the few "equals" (homoioi) meant to be permitted to live among one's peers; but the public realm itself , the polis, was permeated by a fiercely agonal spriit, where everybody had constantly to distinguish himself from all others, to show through unique deeds or achievements that he was the best of all (aien aristeuein) (p. 41).
It is the same conformism, the assumption that men behave and do not act with respect to each other, that lies at the root of the modern science of economics, whose birth coincided with the rise of society and which, together with its chief technical tool, statistics, became the social science par excellence. Economics-until the modern age a not too important part of ethics and politics and based on the assumption that men act with respect to their economic activities as they in every other respect-could achieve a scientific character only when men had become social beings and unanimously followed certain patterns of behavior, so that those who did not keep the rules could be considered to be asocial or abnormal (pp. 41-42).
The law of statistics are valid only where large numbers or long periods are involved, and acts or events can statistically appear only as deviations or fluctuations. The justification of statistics is that deeds and events are rare occurrences in everyday life and in history. Yet the meaningfulness of everyday relationships is disclosed not in everyday life but in rare deeds, just as the significance of a historical period shows itself only in the few events that illuminate it. The application of the law of large numbers and long periods to politics or history signifies nothing less than the wilful obliterations of their very subject matter, and it is a hopeless enterprise to search for meaning in politics or significance in history when everything that is not everyday behavior or automatic trends has been ruled out as immaterial (pp. 42-43).
However, since the laws of statistics are perfectly valid where we deal with large numbers, it is obvious that every increase in population means an increased validity and a marked decrease of "deviation." Politically, this means that the larger the population in any given body politic, the more likely it will be the social rather than the political that constitutes the public realm (p. 43).
Arendt, H. (1958). Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Friday, July 18, 2008
Collective Intelligence - Pierre Levy
UC Irvine Lecture on Web 2.0 Collective Intelligence 1(taught by Julia Lupton)
UC Irvine Lecture on Web 2.0 Collective Intelligence 2
Levy's books
1. Collective Intelligence: Mankind's Emerging World in Cyberspace
2. Cyberculture
Levy's webpage at the Dept of Comm, the University of Ottawa
Deluge (Introduction for "Cyberculture")
I do, however, want to acknowledge the followings: First, that the growth of cyberspace is the result of an international movement of young people eagerto experiment collectively with forms of communication other than those provided by traditional media. Second, that a new communications space is now accessible, and it is up to us to exploit its most positive poetntial on an economic, political, cultural, and human level.
Those who denounce cyberculture today strangely resemble those who criticized rock music during the fifties and sixties... (p. ix)
I would like, therefore, to offer a few commonsense arguments about technology. That cinema and music are industries and a source of revenue does not prevent us from enjoying them or speaking from a cultural or aesthetic perspective. The telephone has proved to be a source of tremendous wealth for telecommunications companies. This in no way mitigates the fact that telephone networks enable planetary and interactive communication. Nor is the fact that only a quarter of humanity has access to telephones an argument "against" the telephone. There is no reason, therefore, why the economic exploitation of the Internet or the failure to provide global acces should in themselves serve as a condemnation of cyberculture or prevent us from approaching it other than with a critical eye.... Ther is no reason to separate commerce from the libertarian and communitarian dynamic that persided at the birth of the Internet. The two are complementary (p. xi)
Telecommunication engendered this second deluge because of the exponential, explosive, and chaotic nature of its growth. The amount of the links of data available is multiplying at an accelerating rate. The density of the links among information sources is increasing at a dizzying pace within data banks, hypertexts, and networks. The result is a chaotic overflow of information, a flood of data swept along by the tumultuous, rolling waters of communication, the deafening cacophony and repetition of the media, a war of images, propaganda and counter propaganda, intellectual confusion.
The democratic bomb is also a kind of deluge, and unimaginable wave of people. There were slightly more than 1.5 billion peole on earth in 1900; there were nearly 6 billion global growth is without historical preceedent.
In the face of this unstoppable human flood, two solutions are possible. The first is war, extermination in an atomic deluge, regardless of the from it takes and the contempt for human life it implies. In this case, human life loses its value. The human is reduced to the level of a farm animal or an ant: hungry, terrorized, exploited, deported, massacred.
The second is the exaltation of the individual, the human considered as the principal source of value, a marvelous and priceless resource. To enhance this value, we tirelessly endeavor to weave relationships between generatios, sexes, nations, and cultures, in spite of the difficulties, in spite of the conflicts. This second solution, symbolized by telecommunications, implies the recognition of the other, mutual acceptance, assistance, cooperation, association, and negotiation, beyond our divergent viewpoints and interests. From on end of the world to the other, telecommunications extendes the possibilities of amicable contact, contractual transactions, the transmission of knowledge and exchange of understanding, the pacific discovery of difference (p. xii).
For the first time in this century of iron and idiocy, the atom and telecommunications have succeeded in unifying the human race: death on a specieswide scale in the case of the atomic bomb, planetary dialogue in the case of telecommunications.
Technologies is responsible for neither our salvation nor our destruction. Always ambivalent, technologies project our emotions, intentions, and projects into the material world. The instruments we have built do provide us with power, but since we are collectively responsible, the decision on how to use them is in our hands (p. xv).
UC Irvine Lecture on Web 2.0 Collective Intelligence 2
Levy's books
1. Collective Intelligence: Mankind's Emerging World in Cyberspace
2. Cyberculture
Levy's webpage at the Dept of Comm, the University of Ottawa
Deluge (Introduction for "Cyberculture")
I do, however, want to acknowledge the followings: First, that the growth of cyberspace is the result of an international movement of young people eagerto experiment collectively with forms of communication other than those provided by traditional media. Second, that a new communications space is now accessible, and it is up to us to exploit its most positive poetntial on an economic, political, cultural, and human level.
Those who denounce cyberculture today strangely resemble those who criticized rock music during the fifties and sixties... (p. ix)
I would like, therefore, to offer a few commonsense arguments about technology. That cinema and music are industries and a source of revenue does not prevent us from enjoying them or speaking from a cultural or aesthetic perspective. The telephone has proved to be a source of tremendous wealth for telecommunications companies. This in no way mitigates the fact that telephone networks enable planetary and interactive communication. Nor is the fact that only a quarter of humanity has access to telephones an argument "against" the telephone. There is no reason, therefore, why the economic exploitation of the Internet or the failure to provide global acces should in themselves serve as a condemnation of cyberculture or prevent us from approaching it other than with a critical eye.... Ther is no reason to separate commerce from the libertarian and communitarian dynamic that persided at the birth of the Internet. The two are complementary (p. xi)
Telecommunication engendered this second deluge because of the exponential, explosive, and chaotic nature of its growth. The amount of the links of data available is multiplying at an accelerating rate. The density of the links among information sources is increasing at a dizzying pace within data banks, hypertexts, and networks. The result is a chaotic overflow of information, a flood of data swept along by the tumultuous, rolling waters of communication, the deafening cacophony and repetition of the media, a war of images, propaganda and counter propaganda, intellectual confusion.
The democratic bomb is also a kind of deluge, and unimaginable wave of people. There were slightly more than 1.5 billion peole on earth in 1900; there were nearly 6 billion global growth is without historical preceedent.
In the face of this unstoppable human flood, two solutions are possible. The first is war, extermination in an atomic deluge, regardless of the from it takes and the contempt for human life it implies. In this case, human life loses its value. The human is reduced to the level of a farm animal or an ant: hungry, terrorized, exploited, deported, massacred.
The second is the exaltation of the individual, the human considered as the principal source of value, a marvelous and priceless resource. To enhance this value, we tirelessly endeavor to weave relationships between generatios, sexes, nations, and cultures, in spite of the difficulties, in spite of the conflicts. This second solution, symbolized by telecommunications, implies the recognition of the other, mutual acceptance, assistance, cooperation, association, and negotiation, beyond our divergent viewpoints and interests. From on end of the world to the other, telecommunications extendes the possibilities of amicable contact, contractual transactions, the transmission of knowledge and exchange of understanding, the pacific discovery of difference (p. xii).
For the first time in this century of iron and idiocy, the atom and telecommunications have succeeded in unifying the human race: death on a specieswide scale in the case of the atomic bomb, planetary dialogue in the case of telecommunications.
Technologies is responsible for neither our salvation nor our destruction. Always ambivalent, technologies project our emotions, intentions, and projects into the material world. The instruments we have built do provide us with power, but since we are collectively responsible, the decision on how to use them is in our hands (p. xv).
Thursday, July 17, 2008
Grounded Theory: Objectivist and Constructivist Model
Since Glaser and Strauss developed grounded theory methods, qualitative researchers have claimed the use of these methods to legitimate their research. Now grounded theory methods have come under attack from both within and withhout. Postmodernists and poststructuralists dispute obvious and subtle positivistic premises assumed by grounded theory's major proponents and within the logic of the method itself (pp. 509-510).
The ascendancy of quantification also led to a growing division between theory and empirical research. Theorists and researchers lived in different worlds and pursued different problems. Presumably, quantitative research tested existing theory as prescribed by the logic-deductive model. However, much of this research remained atheoretical and emphasized controlling variables rather than theory testing (p. 510).
Glaser applied his rigorous positivistic methodological training in quantitative research from Columbia University to the development of qualitative analysis. Grounded theory methods were found upon Glaser's epistemological assumptions, methodological terms, inductive logic, and systematic approach. Strauss's training at the University of Chicago with Herbert Blumer and Robert Park brought Chicago school filed research and symbolic interactionism to grounded theory. Hence, Strauss brought the pragmatist philosophical study of process, action, and meaning into empirical inquiry through grounded theory (p. 512).
The ascendancy of quantification also led to a growing division between theory and empirical research. Theorists and researchers lived in different worlds and pursued different problems. Presumably, quantitative research tested existing theory as prescribed by the logic-deductive model. However, much of this research remained atheoretical and emphasized controlling variables rather than theory testing (p. 510).
Glaser applied his rigorous positivistic methodological training in quantitative research from Columbia University to the development of qualitative analysis. Grounded theory methods were found upon Glaser's epistemological assumptions, methodological terms, inductive logic, and systematic approach. Strauss's training at the University of Chicago with Herbert Blumer and Robert Park brought Chicago school filed research and symbolic interactionism to grounded theory. Hence, Strauss brought the pragmatist philosophical study of process, action, and meaning into empirical inquiry through grounded theory (p. 512).
Wednesday, July 16, 2008
Three Epistemological Stances for Qualitative Inquiry
Interpretivism, Hermebeutics, and Social Constructionism
Thus qualitative inquiry is more comprehensible as a site or arena for social scientific criticism than as any particular kind of social theory, methodology, or philosophy. That site is a "home" for a wide variety of scholars who often are seriously at odds with one another but who share a general rejection of the blend of scientism, foundationalist epistemology, instrumental reasoning, and the philosophical anthropology of disengagement that has marked "mainstream" social science (p. 190).
Interpretivism and hermeneutics, generally characterized as the Geisteswissenschaftlichte or Vestehen tradition in the human sciences, arose in the reactions of neo-Kantian German historians and sociologists (i,e., Dilthey, Rickert, Windlehand, Simmel, Weber) in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to the then-dominant philosophy of positivism (and later, logical positivism). At the heart of the dispute was the claim that the human sciences (Geisteswissenschaftlichte) were fundamentally different in nature and purpose from the natural science (Naturwissenschaften). Defenders of interpretivism and proponents of the unity of the sciences held the view that the purpose of any science (if it is indeed to be callled a science) is to offer causal explanations of social, behavioral, and physical phenomena (p. 191).
Thus qualitative inquiry is more comprehensible as a site or arena for social scientific criticism than as any particular kind of social theory, methodology, or philosophy. That site is a "home" for a wide variety of scholars who often are seriously at odds with one another but who share a general rejection of the blend of scientism, foundationalist epistemology, instrumental reasoning, and the philosophical anthropology of disengagement that has marked "mainstream" social science (p. 190).
Interpretivism and hermeneutics, generally characterized as the Geisteswissenschaftlichte or Vestehen tradition in the human sciences, arose in the reactions of neo-Kantian German historians and sociologists (i,e., Dilthey, Rickert, Windlehand, Simmel, Weber) in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to the then-dominant philosophy of positivism (and later, logical positivism). At the heart of the dispute was the claim that the human sciences (Geisteswissenschaftlichte) were fundamentally different in nature and purpose from the natural science (Naturwissenschaften). Defenders of interpretivism and proponents of the unity of the sciences held the view that the purpose of any science (if it is indeed to be callled a science) is to offer causal explanations of social, behavioral, and physical phenomena (p. 191).
Tuesday, July 15, 2008
The Epsitemological Stances for Qualitative Inquiry
Thus qualitative inquiry is more comprehensible as a site or arena for social scientific criticism than as any particular kind of social theory, methodology, or philosophy. That site is a "home" for a wide variety of scholars who often are seriously at odds with one another but who share a general rejection of the blend of scientism, foundationalist epistemology, instrumental reasoning, and the philosophical anthropology of disengagement that has marked "mainstream" social science (p. 190).
Monday, July 14, 2008
Positivism
Positivistically-based quantitative researchers employ the language of objectivity, distance, and control because they believe these are the keys to the conduct of real science. While we firmly believe in the value of quantitative research that is well carried out under proper conditions for a useful purpose, we also note that the positivist version of quantitative research is socially convenient for those in power who do not want to be the "subjects" of social research and who do not want criticism of their social actions to be brought forward by social researchers. Invoking impartiality and objectivity, positivistic social science absents itself from the controverted social arenas in which the ills produced by bureaucracy, authoritarianism, and inequality are played out, or it washed out this profile through the deployment of numbers rather than words.
The constructivist and postmodernist critiques of recent academic generations have devastated the conceptual and methodological underpinnings of positivism but have had very little effect on displacing the positivist practices and the comfortable "arrangement" among the conventional social sciences, university administrations, and external funders. We are constantly surprised by conventional social scientists' ability to articulate strong criticisms of positivism and yet continue to accept and enact many elements of the positivist approach. And on the other side, there are many (although not all) postmodernists and poststructuralists who argue that all knowledge is so epistemologically compromised that it is impossible to know or do anything about anything, an equally nihilistic self-removal from the field of social engagement (pp. 92-93).
from ch. 3. Reconstructing the relationships between universities and society through action research
Davydd J. Greenwood is the Goldwin Smith Professor of Anthropology and Director of the Institute for European Studies at Cornell University where he has served as a faculty member since 1970. He has been elected a Corresponding Member of the Spanish Royal Academy of Moral and Political Sciences. He served as the John S. Knight Professor and Director of the Mario Einaudi Center for 10 years and was President of the Association of International Education Administrators. He also has served as a program evaluator for many universities and for the National Foreign Language Center. His work centers on action research, political economy, ethnic conflict, community and regional development, the Spanish Basque Country, Spain’s La Mancha region, and the Finger Lakes region of upstate New York where he carried out a 3 year action research and community development project with communities along the Erie Canal corridor. His current work focuses on the impact of corporatization on higher education with a particular emphasis on the social sciences.
Morten Levin
Professor, Department of Industrial Economics and Technology Management.
The Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.
The constructivist and postmodernist critiques of recent academic generations have devastated the conceptual and methodological underpinnings of positivism but have had very little effect on displacing the positivist practices and the comfortable "arrangement" among the conventional social sciences, university administrations, and external funders. We are constantly surprised by conventional social scientists' ability to articulate strong criticisms of positivism and yet continue to accept and enact many elements of the positivist approach. And on the other side, there are many (although not all) postmodernists and poststructuralists who argue that all knowledge is so epistemologically compromised that it is impossible to know or do anything about anything, an equally nihilistic self-removal from the field of social engagement (pp. 92-93).
from ch. 3. Reconstructing the relationships between universities and society through action research
Davydd J. Greenwood is the Goldwin Smith Professor of Anthropology and Director of the Institute for European Studies at Cornell University where he has served as a faculty member since 1970. He has been elected a Corresponding Member of the Spanish Royal Academy of Moral and Political Sciences. He served as the John S. Knight Professor and Director of the Mario Einaudi Center for 10 years and was President of the Association of International Education Administrators. He also has served as a program evaluator for many universities and for the National Foreign Language Center. His work centers on action research, political economy, ethnic conflict, community and regional development, the Spanish Basque Country, Spain’s La Mancha region, and the Finger Lakes region of upstate New York where he carried out a 3 year action research and community development project with communities along the Erie Canal corridor. His current work focuses on the impact of corporatization on higher education with a particular emphasis on the social sciences.
Morten Levin
Professor, Department of Industrial Economics and Technology Management.
The Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Sunday, July 13, 2008
Testimonio
Testimonio: On the Politics of Truth, The University of Minnesota Press
John Beverley
A revealing perspective on the controversial literature of witnessing.
These four germinal essays by John Beverley sparked the widespread discussion and debate surrounding testimonio—the socially and politically charged Latin American narrative of witnessing—that culminated with David Stoll’s highly publicized attack on Rigoberta Menchรบ’s celebrated testimonial text. Challenging Hardt and Negri’s Empire, Beverley’s extensive new introduction examines the broader historical, political, and ethical issues that this literature raises, tracing the development of testimonio from its emergence in the Cold War era to the rise of a globalized economy and U.S. political hegemony.
Informed by postcolonial studies and the current debate over multiculturalism and identity politics, Testimonio reaches across disciplinary boundaries to show how this particular literature at once represents and enacts new forms of agency on the part of previously repressed social subjects, as well as its potential as a new form of “alliance politics” between those subjects and artists, scientists, teachers, and intellectuals in a variety of local, national, and international contexts.
“Testimonial writing is a relatively new genre that has an enormous impact on the definition and meaning of literature in Latin America during the past several decades, and John Beverley is one of its clearest and most succinct proponents.” —Canadian Literature
“Testimonio presents multicultural heterogeneity as being ‘internal to the identity of people’ and has to be articulated against that ‘which it is not’. Beverly's book is not an isolated instance of the use of the literary archive with which to examine larger cross-cultural and/or multicultural issues.” —Year’s Work in Critical & Cultural Theory
John Beverley is professor and chair in the Department of Hispanic Languages and Literatures at the University of Pittsburgh. His books include Subalternity and Representation, The Postmodernism Debate in Latin America, and Against Literature (1993).
John Beverley
A revealing perspective on the controversial literature of witnessing.
These four germinal essays by John Beverley sparked the widespread discussion and debate surrounding testimonio—the socially and politically charged Latin American narrative of witnessing—that culminated with David Stoll’s highly publicized attack on Rigoberta Menchรบ’s celebrated testimonial text. Challenging Hardt and Negri’s Empire, Beverley’s extensive new introduction examines the broader historical, political, and ethical issues that this literature raises, tracing the development of testimonio from its emergence in the Cold War era to the rise of a globalized economy and U.S. political hegemony.
Informed by postcolonial studies and the current debate over multiculturalism and identity politics, Testimonio reaches across disciplinary boundaries to show how this particular literature at once represents and enacts new forms of agency on the part of previously repressed social subjects, as well as its potential as a new form of “alliance politics” between those subjects and artists, scientists, teachers, and intellectuals in a variety of local, national, and international contexts.
“Testimonial writing is a relatively new genre that has an enormous impact on the definition and meaning of literature in Latin America during the past several decades, and John Beverley is one of its clearest and most succinct proponents.” —Canadian Literature
“Testimonio presents multicultural heterogeneity as being ‘internal to the identity of people’ and has to be articulated against that ‘which it is not’. Beverly's book is not an isolated instance of the use of the literary archive with which to examine larger cross-cultural and/or multicultural issues.” —Year’s Work in Critical & Cultural Theory
John Beverley is professor and chair in the Department of Hispanic Languages and Literatures at the University of Pittsburgh. His books include Subalternity and Representation, The Postmodernism Debate in Latin America, and Against Literature (1993).
Saturday, July 12, 2008
Research Process
Table 1.1. The Research Process (p. 20)
Phase 1: The researcher as a multicultural subject
history and research traditions
conceptions of self and the other
ethics and politics of research
Phase 2: Theoretical paradigms and perspectives
positivism, postpositivism
interpretivism, constructivism, hermeneutics
feminism(s)
realized discourses
critical theory and Marxist models
cultural studies models
queer theory
Phase 3: Research strategies
study design
case study
ethnography, participant observation, performance ethnography
phenomenology, ethonomethodology
grounded theory
life history, testimonio
historical method
action and applied research
clinical research
Phase 4: Methods of collection analysis
interviewing
observing
artifacts, documents, and records
visual methods
autoethnography
data management methods
computer-assisted analysis
textual analysis
focus groups
applied ethnography
Phase 5: The art, practices, and politics of interpretation and presentation
criteria for judging adequacy
practices and politics of interpretation
writing as interpretation
policy analysis
evaluation traditions
applied research
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Phase 1: The researcher as a multicultural subject
history and research traditions
conceptions of self and the other
ethics and politics of research
Phase 2: Theoretical paradigms and perspectives
positivism, postpositivism
interpretivism, constructivism, hermeneutics
feminism(s)
realized discourses
critical theory and Marxist models
cultural studies models
queer theory
Phase 3: Research strategies
study design
case study
ethnography, participant observation, performance ethnography
phenomenology, ethonomethodology
grounded theory
life history, testimonio
historical method
action and applied research
clinical research
Phase 4: Methods of collection analysis
interviewing
observing
artifacts, documents, and records
visual methods
autoethnography
data management methods
computer-assisted analysis
textual analysis
focus groups
applied ethnography
Phase 5: The art, practices, and politics of interpretation and presentation
criteria for judging adequacy
practices and politics of interpretation
writing as interpretation
policy analysis
evaluation traditions
applied research
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Friday, July 11, 2008
Introduction - Handbook
Rapid social change and the resulting diversification of life worlds are increasingly confronting social researchers with new social contexts and perspectives... traditional deductive methodologies...are failing...thus research is increasingly forced to make use of inductive strategies instead of starting from theories and testing them...knowledge and practice are studied as local knowledge and practice (p. 9).
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Prefact of the Handbook
We observed that over the past two decades, a quiet methodological revolution had been occurring in the social sciences; a blurring of disciplinary boundaries was taking place. The social sciences and humanities were drawing closer together in a mutual focus on an interpretive, qualitative approach to research and theory (p. ix).
we may observe that qualitative inquiry, among other things, is the mane for "reformist movement that began in the early 1970s in the academy." The interpretive and critical paradigms, in their multiple forms, are central to this movement...
The transformation in the field of qualitative research that were taking place in the early 1990s continued to gain momentum as the decade unfolded (p. x).
Defining the Field
They locate themselves on the borders between postpositivism and poststructuralism. They use any and all of the research strategies (case study, ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, biographical, historical, participatory, and clinical) discussed in Part III of this Handbook...
These scholars constitute a loosely defined interpretive community. They are slowly coming to agreement on what constitutes "good," "bad," banal, and emancipatory, troubling analysis and interpretation. They are constantly challenging the distinction between the 'real" and that which is constructed, understanding that all event and understandings are mediated and made real through interactional and material practices, through discourse, conversational, writing, narrative, scientific articles, realist, postrealist, and performance tales from the field...
It is at this juncture - the uneasy crossroads between pragmatism and postmodernism - that a quiet revolution is occurring. This is so because pragmatism is itself a theoretical and philosophical concern, firmly rooted in the realist tradition. As such, it is a theoretical positions that privileges practice and method over reflection and deliberative action. Indeed, postmodernism (and poststructuralism) has no predisposition to privilege discourse over observation, Instead, postmodernism (and poststructuralism) would simply have us attend to discourse as seriously as we attend to observation (or any other fieldwork methods) and to recognize that our discourses are the vehicles for sharing our observations with those were not in the field with us (p. xiv).
Competing Definition of Qualitative Research Methods
The open-ended nature of the qualitative research project leads to a perpetual resistance against attempts to impose a single, umbrellalike paradigm over the entire project...
The generic focus of each of these versions of qualitative research moves in four directions at the same time: (a) the "detour through interpretive theory" linked (b) to the analysis of the politics of representation and the textual analysis of literary and cultural forms, including their production, distribution, and consumption; (c) the ethnographic, qualitative study of these forms in everyday life and (d) the investigation of new pedagogical and interpretive practices that interactively engage critical cultural analysis in the classroom and the local community (p. xv).
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.
we may observe that qualitative inquiry, among other things, is the mane for "reformist movement that began in the early 1970s in the academy." The interpretive and critical paradigms, in their multiple forms, are central to this movement...
The transformation in the field of qualitative research that were taking place in the early 1990s continued to gain momentum as the decade unfolded (p. x).
Defining the Field
They locate themselves on the borders between postpositivism and poststructuralism. They use any and all of the research strategies (case study, ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, biographical, historical, participatory, and clinical) discussed in Part III of this Handbook...
These scholars constitute a loosely defined interpretive community. They are slowly coming to agreement on what constitutes "good," "bad," banal, and emancipatory, troubling analysis and interpretation. They are constantly challenging the distinction between the 'real" and that which is constructed, understanding that all event and understandings are mediated and made real through interactional and material practices, through discourse, conversational, writing, narrative, scientific articles, realist, postrealist, and performance tales from the field...
It is at this juncture - the uneasy crossroads between pragmatism and postmodernism - that a quiet revolution is occurring. This is so because pragmatism is itself a theoretical and philosophical concern, firmly rooted in the realist tradition. As such, it is a theoretical positions that privileges practice and method over reflection and deliberative action. Indeed, postmodernism (and poststructuralism) has no predisposition to privilege discourse over observation, Instead, postmodernism (and poststructuralism) would simply have us attend to discourse as seriously as we attend to observation (or any other fieldwork methods) and to recognize that our discourses are the vehicles for sharing our observations with those were not in the field with us (p. xiv).
Competing Definition of Qualitative Research Methods
The open-ended nature of the qualitative research project leads to a perpetual resistance against attempts to impose a single, umbrellalike paradigm over the entire project...
The generic focus of each of these versions of qualitative research moves in four directions at the same time: (a) the "detour through interpretive theory" linked (b) to the analysis of the politics of representation and the textual analysis of literary and cultural forms, including their production, distribution, and consumption; (c) the ethnographic, qualitative study of these forms in everyday life and (d) the investigation of new pedagogical and interpretive practices that interactively engage critical cultural analysis in the classroom and the local community (p. xv).
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Institut fรผr Publizistikwissenschaft und Medienforschung
The Institute for Mass Communication and Media Research (IPMZ, Institut fรผr Publizistikwissenschaft und Medienforschung) is a research and education center of the Philosophy Department at the University of Zurich (www.ipmz.unizh.ch).
Thursday, July 10, 2008
Short-circuiting of information - "From Reliable Sources"
Historians must thus always consider the conditions under which a source was produced - the intentions that motivated it - but they must not assume that such knowledge tells them all they need to know about its "reliability." They must also consider the historical context in which it was produced - the events that proceeded it, and those that followed. for the significance of any event recorded depends as much on what comes after as it does on what comes before (p. 19).
Written sources are usually categorized according to a tripartite scheme: as narrative or "literary," as diplomatic/judicial, or as social documents (p. 20).
Narrative or literary: narrative for, tract, novel, newspapers, ego documents (diary, memoirs...)
Diplomatic sources are understood to be those which document an existing legal situation or create a new one, and it is these kinds of sources that professional historians once treated as the purest, the "best" source.
Social documents: are the products of record-keeping by bureaucracies such as state ministries, charitable organizations, foundations, churches, and schools (p. 21).
Archaeological evidences
Oral evidence
The impact of communication and information technology on the production of sources
Finally, the careful scholar will be attentive to what we might call "short-circuiting" of information flows, the distortion that occurs as information passes from hand to hand. Scholars using sources from oral cultures-folktales, for example-are very sensitive to such risks, for tales told orally can easily change in the telling, but even those historians using printed sources or the reports from electronic media are not free of these problems of interpretation (p. 33).
Howell & Prevenier. (2001). From reliable sources: An introduction to historical methods. New York: Cornell University Press.
Written sources are usually categorized according to a tripartite scheme: as narrative or "literary," as diplomatic/judicial, or as social documents (p. 20).
Narrative or literary: narrative for, tract, novel, newspapers, ego documents (diary, memoirs...)
Diplomatic sources are understood to be those which document an existing legal situation or create a new one, and it is these kinds of sources that professional historians once treated as the purest, the "best" source.
Social documents: are the products of record-keeping by bureaucracies such as state ministries, charitable organizations, foundations, churches, and schools (p. 21).
Archaeological evidences
Oral evidence
The impact of communication and information technology on the production of sources
Finally, the careful scholar will be attentive to what we might call "short-circuiting" of information flows, the distortion that occurs as information passes from hand to hand. Scholars using sources from oral cultures-folktales, for example-are very sensitive to such risks, for tales told orally can easily change in the telling, but even those historians using printed sources or the reports from electronic media are not free of these problems of interpretation (p. 33).
Howell & Prevenier. (2001). From reliable sources: An introduction to historical methods. New York: Cornell University Press.
Wednesday, July 09, 2008
from Reliable Sources
Howell and Prevenier focus on one topic - historical sources and how to use them. The authors begin with an introduction that defines and explains what they think history is. Howell and prvenier believe that historians create history through their research and writings rather than discovering it. That does not mean that they think history is a mere fiction. Some histories are of better quality than others. Both authors contend that history can be done reasonalbly accurately and well but that it can also be done inaccurately and poorly. As they define it. "the historian's basic taks is to choose reliable source, to read them reliably, and to put them together in ways that provide reliable narratives about the past" (p. 2). But as they go on to explain further, the historian's task is handicapped by uncertainty stemming from the imperfections and gaps in the surviving sources. That handicap, however, can be minimized and useful history puroduced if historians are careful and judicious in their use of sources.
Historical sources: artifacts that have been left by the past (p. 16)
subsets of historical sources
remains such as archaeological evidence
testimonials of witnesses
In this way Howell and Prevenier focus their discussion of sources on the type of sources that most other research guides call primary sources. Secondary and tertiary sources are not discussed. Howell and Prevenier divide written sources into three types - narrative, diplomatic/judicial, and social documents. They also discurss unwritten sources-archaeological evidence, visual representations, and oral reports. In addition, the authors reflect on the types of historical sources that have survived and the politics that lie behind archives and the editing of historical texts...
Sources are compared for agreement, disagreement, uniqueness, completeness, or imcompleteness. Historians also need to determine if or how satisfactory their historical evidence is and if it qualifies as a "fact," particularly an important fact.
Traditional Technique
The appearance of common sense
Judicious empiricism
[A]s history has matured as an academic discipline during the late nineteenth century, it began to adopt methodologies from related disciplines - sociology, economics, anthropology, and literary criticism. In many instances, the cross-fertilization between history and various other disciplines bas been a positive and beneficial process. Idea from Karl Marx, Marx Weber, and Emile Durkheim have contributed many important and also controversial concept to historical studies. The blind adoption of social science methodology, however, can also endanger the integrity of the enterprise of history. Literary criticism, once a close analog and ally of the historian's source criticism, has in the second half of the twentieth century adopted theories and methods of structuralism and post-sturcturalism or post-modernism. Many historians have followed suit. As a result, history has changed its nature as a discipline and serious epistemological disputes have erupted among historians.
# Ronald H. Fritze
# Reviewed work(s): From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods by Martha Howell; Walter Prevenier
# Sixteenth Century Journal, Vol. 33, No. 4 (Winter, 2002), pp. 1247-1249
# Publisher: The Sixteenth Century Journal
# Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4144236
Historical sources: artifacts that have been left by the past (p. 16)
subsets of historical sources
remains such as archaeological evidence
testimonials of witnesses
In this way Howell and Prevenier focus their discussion of sources on the type of sources that most other research guides call primary sources. Secondary and tertiary sources are not discussed. Howell and Prevenier divide written sources into three types - narrative, diplomatic/judicial, and social documents. They also discurss unwritten sources-archaeological evidence, visual representations, and oral reports. In addition, the authors reflect on the types of historical sources that have survived and the politics that lie behind archives and the editing of historical texts...
Sources are compared for agreement, disagreement, uniqueness, completeness, or imcompleteness. Historians also need to determine if or how satisfactory their historical evidence is and if it qualifies as a "fact," particularly an important fact.
Traditional Technique
The appearance of common sense
Judicious empiricism
[A]s history has matured as an academic discipline during the late nineteenth century, it began to adopt methodologies from related disciplines - sociology, economics, anthropology, and literary criticism. In many instances, the cross-fertilization between history and various other disciplines bas been a positive and beneficial process. Idea from Karl Marx, Marx Weber, and Emile Durkheim have contributed many important and also controversial concept to historical studies. The blind adoption of social science methodology, however, can also endanger the integrity of the enterprise of history. Literary criticism, once a close analog and ally of the historian's source criticism, has in the second half of the twentieth century adopted theories and methods of structuralism and post-sturcturalism or post-modernism. Many historians have followed suit. As a result, history has changed its nature as a discipline and serious epistemological disputes have erupted among historians.
# Ronald H. Fritze
# Reviewed work(s): From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods by Martha Howell; Walter Prevenier
# Sixteenth Century Journal, Vol. 33, No. 4 (Winter, 2002), pp. 1247-1249
# Publisher: The Sixteenth Century Journal
# Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4144236
Quantitative Method in mainly Qualitative Research
Statistics will be simple and descriptive, because of the possible biases in the sampling. They are meant only to give some indications about the quantitative dimensions of the study and will be used mainly to compare coverage between newspapers, countries, or regions in First and Third World countries (pp. 66-67).
van Dijk, Teun A. (1988). News analysis: Case studies of international and national news in the press. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum.
van Dijk, Teun A. (1988). News analysis: Case studies of international and national news in the press. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum.
Tuesday, July 08, 2008
Processing News as Discourse
It has been emphasized that the analysis of discourse should not be limited to the structures of texts or dialogues. When discourses are defined as units of verbal interaction or as communicative events, their actual processing or uses in social and communicative contexts should also be accounted for in an integrated approach (p. 18).
historical, political, macrosociological, and mass communication properties of news discourse
1. News participants as social actors
2. Cognitive dimension: Social cognition and news processing - Microsociologists who have begun to study news production routines of journalists do make use of cognitive notions such as interpretation, rules, or procedures (Tuchman...), but these are no more explained than the cognitive notions used in classical macrosociology, such as norms, goals, values, or ideologies...
The basis of a cognitive analysis of news discourse processing consists of the interplay between representations and operations in memory. The operations have a strategic nature (van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983). Unlike grammatical rules or formal algorithms, strategies are flexible, goal directed, and context dependent (pp. 19-20).
3. Scripts
Since they are relatively permanent and often needed by social members, scripts reside in semantic or social long-term memory
4. Models
To understand a text, language users not only build an episodic representation of it but also of the events or situation such a text is about, that is, a model. Thus, models also function as the referential basis of cognitive interpretation and are essential to account for the conditions of previously mentioned discourse coherence (p. 22).
5. Context Models
To be able to participate in a communicative event, we again build a model of the context, featuring a communicative setting, location, circumstances, speech participants, and the kind of speech acts or other communicative acts involved (p. 23).
6. Strategic processing and control
7. Social representations
8. Social representations. ideology, and news production
From this theoretical framework, it follows that the representation and reproduction of news events by journalists is not a direct or passive operations but rather a socially and ideologically controlled set of constructive strategies... This does not exclude personal variation, deviation, resistance, and hence change: We have specified that models embody personal experiences or plans, and these may again be communicated, shared, and used to reproduce counterideologies and to plan counteraction, when specific socioeconomic and cultural conditions are satisfied (pp. 27-28).
9. News Comprehension
van Dijk, Teun A. (1988). News analysis: Case studies of international and national news in the press. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum.
historical, political, macrosociological, and mass communication properties of news discourse
1. News participants as social actors
2. Cognitive dimension: Social cognition and news processing - Microsociologists who have begun to study news production routines of journalists do make use of cognitive notions such as interpretation, rules, or procedures (Tuchman...), but these are no more explained than the cognitive notions used in classical macrosociology, such as norms, goals, values, or ideologies...
The basis of a cognitive analysis of news discourse processing consists of the interplay between representations and operations in memory. The operations have a strategic nature (van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983). Unlike grammatical rules or formal algorithms, strategies are flexible, goal directed, and context dependent (pp. 19-20).
3. Scripts
Since they are relatively permanent and often needed by social members, scripts reside in semantic or social long-term memory
4. Models
To understand a text, language users not only build an episodic representation of it but also of the events or situation such a text is about, that is, a model. Thus, models also function as the referential basis of cognitive interpretation and are essential to account for the conditions of previously mentioned discourse coherence (p. 22).
5. Context Models
To be able to participate in a communicative event, we again build a model of the context, featuring a communicative setting, location, circumstances, speech participants, and the kind of speech acts or other communicative acts involved (p. 23).
6. Strategic processing and control
7. Social representations
8. Social representations. ideology, and news production
From this theoretical framework, it follows that the representation and reproduction of news events by journalists is not a direct or passive operations but rather a socially and ideologically controlled set of constructive strategies... This does not exclude personal variation, deviation, resistance, and hence change: We have specified that models embody personal experiences or plans, and these may again be communicated, shared, and used to reproduce counterideologies and to plan counteraction, when specific socioeconomic and cultural conditions are satisfied (pp. 27-28).
9. News Comprehension
van Dijk, Teun A. (1988). News analysis: Case studies of international and national news in the press. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum.
ๅ จๅฒ็ ฅ ๅ ํ๊ตญ์ํ ์ด์ฌ & ๏คฏๅ็ฅ่
ํ๊ตญ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ๊ณ ํจ/์ ์ฒ ํ ์ง์/์๋ฅดํฌ๋ค/1๋ง2000์
‘์ง๋ณด๊ฒฝ์ ํ์์ด์ ์ธํ ์๊ธฐ ๊ทน๋ณต ์ ์์ฅ์ฐ๋ ํ๊ตญ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ํฐ ๋ณ์ด ์ง๋ค.’
2004๋ 6์ 18์ผ ์ ์ฒ ํ ์ ํ๊ตญ์ํ ์ด์ฌ๊ฐ ์ฌ์ฅ๋ณ์ผ๋ก ์ธ์์ ๋ ๋์ ์ธ๋ก ๊ณผ ๊ฐ๊ณ ์ธ์ฌ๋ค์ ์ด๋ ๊ฒ ๊ทธ๋ฅผ ๊ธฐ๋ ธ๋ค. ์๊ฐ์ด ํ๋ฅธ ๋ค, ํ๊ตญ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ๋ํ ์ ์ ์ ๋ง์์ ์ ๋ฉด๊ธ๋ฉด ๋ด์ ๊ทธ์ ๊ธ๋ค์ด ํ ๊ถ์ ์ฑ ์ผ๋ก ๋์๋ค.
๊ณ ์ธ์ ์ ๊ณ ์『ํ๊ตญ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ๊ณ ํจ』์ด๋ผ๋ ์ฑ ์ด ๊ทธ๊ฒ์ด๋ค. ๊ณ ์ธ์ ๋ ๋ฌ์ง๋ง ํ๋ฐฐ๋ค์ ํ ๊ถ์ ์ฑ ์ ํตํด์ ๊ทธ์ ๊ฐ๊ฒฐํ๋ ์ ์ ์ ๋์๊ธธ ์ ์๋ค.
“๊ณต์ง์ ์๋ ๋์ ์์๋ค์ด ์ฃผ์ ํฌ์๋ฅผ ํด์๋ ์ ๋๋ค.”
์ฝ ๊ฒ ์ถ๊ฐ๋๋ ์ฑ ์ ๋ง์ง ์๊ฒ ์ง๋ง ๊ณ ์ธ์ ์ฑ ๋ ์ถ๊ฐ๋๊ธฐ๊น์ง ๋ง์ ์ฐ์ฌ๊ณก์ ์ ๊ฒช์๋ค. ์ถํ์ฌ ์๋ผํฌ๋ค์ ๊น์ฐํ ์ฌ์ฅ์ด ์ ์ ์ด์ฌ์๊ฒ ์ฑ ์ถ๊ฐ์ ์ ์ํ ๊ฒ์ ๊ทธ๊ฐ ํ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ก ์ฌ์งํ๋ ๋์๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ๊ณ ๊ฒฐํ ์ฑํ์ ๊ฐ์งํ๋ ๊ทธ๋ ๊ณต์ง์ธ ์ค์์ํ ์ด์ฌ์ ๊ณต์ ์๊ธ๊ด๋ฆฌ์์ํ ์์์ฅ์ผ๋ก ์ฌ์งํ๋ฉด์ ์ฑ ์ ๋ผ ์๋ ์๋ค๊ณ ํ๋ค๊ณ ํ๋ค. ๊ฒฐ๊ตญ ๊ณต์ง์์ ๋ฌผ๋ฌ๋ ๋ค, ๊ฐ์ข ์ธ๋ก ์ ๊ธฐ๊ณ ๋ฌธ์ ๊ฐ์ธ์ ์๊ฐ์ ๋ง๋ถ์ฌ ์๊ณ ๋ฅผ ์์ ํ๋๋ฐ ๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ์๊ณ ๊ฐ ๋น์ ๋ณด๊ธฐ ์ง์ ๊ทธ๋ ์ธ์์ ๋ด๋ค.
์ถํ์ฌ๋ก์ ์์ฌ์์ด ์์๊ฒ ์ง๋ง ์ ์กฑ์๊ฒ ์ถ๊ฐ์ ์ ์ํ ์๋ ์์์ ํฐ. ๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ์ฅ๊ณ ๋ ๊ฒฐ๊ตญ ์ ์กฑ๋ค์ ์์ง์ ๋ฐ๋ผ ๋น์ ๋ณด๊ฒ ๋๋ค. ์ ์กฑ๋ค์ด ์ ํ์ ์ ๋ฆฌํ๋ค๊ฐ ๋ฐ๊ฒฌ๋ ์ถ๊ฐ ๊ณ์ฝ์๋ฅผ ๋ณด๊ณ ์ถํ์ฌ์ ์ฐ๋ฝ์ ํด ๊ณ ์ธ์ ๋ป์ ๋ฐ๋ฅด๊ธฐ๋ก ํ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค.
์ฑ ์ ๋ด์ฉ์ ์ดํด๋ณด๊ธฐ ์ด์ ์ ๋จผ์ ๊ผฌ์ฅ๊ผฌ์ฅํ ์ ๋น์๋ ๊ฐ์ ํ๋๋ฅผ ๋ณด์๋ ๊ทธ์ ์ถ์ ์ดํด๋ณด๋ ๊ฒ ์ข์ ๋ฏํ๋ค. ๊ทธ๊ฐ 1998๋ ๊ตญ๋ฏผ์ ์ ๋ถ์์ ํ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ก ์๋ช ๋ ๋น์์ ์ผํ๋ค์ ์ง๊ธ๋ ๋ง์ ๊ธ์ต์ธ๊ณผ ๊ณต๋ฌด์๋ค ์ฌ์ด์ ํ์ ๊ฐ ๋๋ค. ๊ทธ๊ฐ ํ์์ด์ฌ๋ก ์๋ช ๋์์ ๋ ํ๊ตญ ๊ฒฝ์ ๋ ์ธํ ์๊ธฐ์ ์ด๋ ค์ ์์์ ์ฌ์ ํ ์์ฒ ๋ถ์์ ํต์ฆ์ ํธ์ํ๊ณ ์์๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฐ ์ํฉ์์๋ ์ค์์ํ ์ด์ฌ ์๋ฆฌ๊ฐ ๋ง๋ฅ ์๊ด๋๊ณ ๋ช ์๋กญ๊ธฐ๋ง ํ ์๋ฆฌ๊ฐ ์๋์์ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค.
๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ๊ทธ๋ ๊ฒฐ๊ตญ ์ ๋ถ์ ์ผ๊ณ ์ด๋ ค๋ฅผ ๋ฐ์๋ค์ด๊ธฐ๋ก ํ๋ค. ๊ทธ๊ฐ ํ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ก ์๋ช ๋์ ์ผ๋ถ์์๋ ๋ค์ ์์ธ๋ผ๋ ํ๊ฐ๋ฅผ ๋ด๋๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ค. ๋น์ ๊ทธ์๊ฒ๋ ์ฌ์ผ ํ์์ ์ง๋ฐฉ๋ํ ๊ต์๋ผ๋ ๋ ์ด๋ฏธ์ง๊ฐ ์ง๊ฒ ๋๋ฆฌ์์ ธ ์์๋ค. ์ถฉ๋จ๋ํ๊ต ๊ต์ ์ฌ์ง ์์ ํ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ก ์๋ช ๋์ ๊ทธ๋ ์ฃผ์ ์์ด ๊ต์์ง์ ์ฌ์ํ๋ค. “ํ์ ์ด์ฌํด์ ํ์๋ ๊ต์ ์ ๋ ๋ ์ผ๋ง ๋จ์ง ์๋๋ค”๋ ๋ง์ ํ๊ณ์ ๋ถ๊ณผํ๊ณ , ๊ณต์ฌ ๊ตฌ๋ณ์ ์ ๋ ์ด ํ๊ณ ํ๊ธฐ์ ๊ฐ๋ฅํ ๊ฒฐ์ ์ด์๋ค. ์์ ๊ต์๊ฐ ์ ๋ถ์ ๊ธฐ๊ด์ฅ์ด ๋๋ฉด ํ๊ต ๋ช ์์ ๋ฐ์ ์๋ ๋์์ด ๋๋ค๋ ์ ์ ๋ค์ด ์ถฉ๋จ๋๋ ๊ทธ์ ๊ต์์ง ์ ์ง๋ฅผ ํฌ๋งํ๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ๊ทธ๋ด์๋ก ๊ทธ์ ์ฌ๊ณง์ ์ฒ์ ๋ง ๋๋ณด์๋ค.
๋ ํ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ก ์๋ช ๋์ ๊ทธ๋ ๊ณง ‘์์ ์ ๊ฐ’์ ๋์ฐ๋ค. ๊ณง๋ฐ๋ก ๋ ์๋ค์ ๋ถ๋ฌ ์ฃผ์ ํฌ์ ๋ด์ฉ์ ์์ธํ ๋ฌผ์๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ ๋จ๊ธด ๋ง์ ๊ฐ๋จ๋ช ๋ฃํ๋ค. “๋ด๊ฐ ํ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ก ์ฌ์งํ๋ ๋์์๋ ์ผ์ฒด์ ์ฃผ์์ ์ฌ๊ฑฐ๋ ํ์ง ๋ง๋ผ.”๊ณ ๋ง๊ฒ๋ ์์๋ค์ ๊ทธ ๋ง์ ์ ๋ฐ๋ผ์ฃผ์๊ณ , ์ ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ ํ์ฌ ์์ธ๋ํ ๋ณ์ ์์ฌ์ ํ๋ฒ์ฌํ์ ํ๋ฒ์ฐ๊ตฌ๊ด์ผ๋ก ์ฌ์ง ์ค์ธ ๋ ์๋ค์ ๊ฒฐํผ์์ ํ์ ์ง์๋ค๋ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๊ฒ ์น๋ ๋ค.
์ฑ๊ณตํ ์ค์์ํ ์ด์ฌ๊ฐ ๋ ์ง๋ณดํ์
๊ทธ์ ์ฌ์ ๊ธฐ๊ฐ์ ํตํด ํ์์ ์ง๋ถ์ค๋น๊ธ์ด๋ ๊ด๋ฆฌํ๋ ์ค์์ํ์ด๋ผ๋ ์ด๋ฏธ์ง์์ ๊ธ์ต์์ฅ ๊ด๋ฆฌ์๋ก ์ด๋ฏธ์ง๋ฅผ ๋ฐ๊ฟจ๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ ์ ๋น์ ๊ฐ์ ์ฑ์ ์ ์ง๋ ์ผ๋ฉด์๋ ์ผ์ ๋ํ ์ถ์ง๋ ฅ์ ๋จ๋ฌ๋๋ ๋ฏํ๋ค. ๊ฒฝ๊ธฐ๊ฐ ์นจ์ฒด ๊ตญ๋ฉด์ผ๋ก ๋์์ 2001๋ 7์์๋ ๊ธ๋ฆฌ ์ธํ๋ฅผ ๊ด์ฒ ํ๊ธฐ ์ํ ‘๋ฌด์ ํ ํ์’๋ฅผ ์งํํ๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ค. 2001๋ 9์ ๋ฏธ๊ตญ ํ ๋ฌ ์ฌํ ์งํ์๋ ์ฌ์ ์ต๋ ์ธ 0.5% ํฌ์ธํธ์ ๊ธ๋ฆฌ ์ธํ๋ฅผ ๋จํํ๋ค. ๊ทธ์ ์์ ๋ํ์ ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ๋ฏธ์น๋ ์ธ๋ถ ์ถฉ๊ฒฉ์ ์กฐ๊ธฐ์ ์ฐจ๋จํ๋ ํจ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๋ณด๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ค. ๊ธ๋ฆฌ ์ธํ ์์ ์ ๋์น์ง ์์๋ค๋ ํ๊ฐ๋ ๊ทธ๋์ ๋์๋ค. ๋ฏธ๊ตญ์ ์จ๋ฐ ๊ทธ๋ฆฐ์คํ ์ฐ๋ฐฉ์ค๋น์ ๋์ด์ฌํ ์์ฅ์ด ์๋ค๋ฉด, ์ฐ๋ฆฌ์๊ฒ๋‘์ ์ฒ ํ์ด ์๋ค’๋ ๋ฏฟ์์ ์์ฅ์ ์ค ๊ฒ์ด๋ค.
2002 ๋ 4์ ์๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ๋ง์น๊ณ ๋ฌผ๋ฌ๋ฌ์ ๋๋ ๋ฐ๋ฐฑ๋ ์ด ๋๋ ํ์ ์ญ์ฌ๋ฅผ ํตํ์ด ์๊ธฐ(4๋ )๋ฅผ ์จ์ ํ ๋ง์น ๋ค์ฏ ๋ฒ์งธ ์ด์ฌ๋ก ๊ธฐ๋ก๋๋ค. ๊ทธ์ ๋ํ ํ๊ฐ๋ ๋น๋จ ๋ฌผ๋ฆฌ์ ์์น๋ง์ ๋ฐฐ๊ฒฝ์ผ๋ก ํ์ง ์๋๋ค. ํด์ ๋น์ ํ์ ์์ง์๊ณผ ์ถ์ ๊ธฐ์๋ค๋ก๋ถํฐ ๊ฐ์ฌํจ๋ฅผ ๋ฐ๋ ํ์น ์์ ์ฅ๋ฉด์ด ํฌ์ฐฉ๋๋ค. ๋น์ ์ธ๋ก ์ด ํ์ ์ญ์ฌ์ ์ผ์ฐ์ด ์์๋ ์ผ์ด๋ผ๋ฉฐ ๋์ด ํ๊ฐํ ๊ฒ๋ ๋ฌด๋ฆฌ๋ ์๋์๋ค. ํด์ํ๋ ๋ ๊ทธ๋ ๋ง์กฑํ์ง๋ง ์ญ์๋ ๊ฒธ์์ ๊ฐ์ถ ์ ๋น์ ๋ชจ์ต์ ๋ณด์ฌ์ฃผ์๋ค. ์ถ์ ๊ธฐ์๋ค์๊ฒ ๋จ๊ธด“์ด๋ ค์ธ ๋ ๋ค์ด์ ์ข์ ๋ ๋๊ฐ ๊ธฐ๋ถ์ด ์ข๋ค. ๊ฒฝ์ ๋ ์ด๋ ์ ๋ ์์ ๋ ์ํฉ์์ ํด์ํ๊ฒ ๋ผ ๋ ์ด์ ๋ฐ๋ ๊ฒ ์๋ค”๋ ๊ฐํ ์ ๋๊ฐ ๊ณ ์์ด์๋ค.
์์ฐํ ๋ชธ๊ฐ์ง์ ์์ง ์๊ณ ์ ๋ ธ๋ ฅํ๋ ๊ทธ๋ ๋ช ๋ฌ ํ ์ ๋ถ์ ๊ณต์ ์๊ธ๊ด๋ฆฌ์์์ฅ์ผ๋ก ๋์์๋ค. ๋ค์ ๊ณต์ง์ ๋งก๊ธธ ์์น ์์๋ ๊ทธ์๊ฒ ์ํ ํฉ๋ณ ๋ฑ ์๋ฏผํ ๋ฌธ์ ๋ฅผ ๋ค๋ฃจ๋ฉฐ ์ดํด ๋น์ฌ์๋ฅผ ์ค๋ํด ๋ด๊ธฐ์ ๊ทธ๋งํ ์ธ๋ฌผ์ ์ฐพ๊ธฐ ํ๋ค์๋ ์ ๋ถ์ ๋น์ฐํ ๊ฒฐ์ ์ด์๋ค.
์ข ๋ ์๋๋ฅผ ๊ฑฐ์ฌ๋ฌ ์ฌ๋ผ๊ฐ ๋ณด๋ฉด ๊ทธ๋ 1960๋ ๊ณ ์ ํ์ ๊ณผ์ ํฉ๊ฒฉํด 1963๋ ๋ถํฐ ๊ฒฝ์ ๊ธฐํ์๊ณผ ๊ตํต๋ถ ๋ฑ์์ ๊ทผ๋ฌดํ๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ๊ผฌ์ฅ๊ผฌ์ฅํ ์ฑ๊ฒฉ์ ๊ทธ๋ฅผ ํ์๋ฆฌ์ ๋จธ๋ฌผ์ง ๋ชปํ๊ฒ ํ๋ค. ์ ๋ถ์ ์ ์ฑ ๊ณผ ์์ ์ ์ฒ ํ์ด ๋ง์ง ์์, ๊ณ ์ ๊ณต์ง์์ ๊ธธ์ ๋ฒ๋ฆฌ๊ณ ๋ํ์ผ๋ก ์๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ์ฎ๊ฒผ๋ค.
๋ถ์ธ์ธ ์ด๊ฒฝ์ ์ถฉ๋จ๋ ๊ตญ๋ฌธ๊ณผ ๊ต์์ ํจ๊ป ํ๋ ๋ถ๋ถ ๊ต์๋ก ์ด๋ฆ์ ๋์ด๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ ์ถฉ๋จ๋ ๊ต์ ์ฌ์ง ์์ ๋ถํฐ‘์๋ฏผ ๊ธ์ต์ ํ์ฑํ’๋ฅผ ์ฃผ์ฅํด์จ ์ ์ฉํ๋์กฐํฉ์ ์ค๋ ์กฐํฉ์์ ๊ธธ์ ๊ฑท๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ ์ง๋ณดํ์์ด๋ฉด์ ๋์ชฝ ํ์์๋ค. ๊ณต์ง์ ์์ ๋ ๊ณจํ๋ฅผ ์น์ง ์์๊ณ , ํ์์ ๋ ๋ด๋ ค๊ฐ ์์ ์ ํ๋ผ์ด๋ ์น์ฉ์ฐจ๋ฅผ ๊ฑฑ์ ํ ์ฒญ๋ ดํ ํ์ ์ด์ฌ์ด๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ค.
photo by ํ๊ฒจ๋
๊ทธ๋ฐ๊ฐ ํ๋ฉด ๊ทธ๋ ๊น๊ตฌ ์ ์์ ํํธ ‘๋ ธ๋์ ์ฑ’์ ๊ฑธ์ด๋๊ณ ์ข์ฐ๋ช ์ผ๋ก ์ผ์ ์ ๊ตญ์์๋ค. ์ค๋ ์ ์ ํ๊ณํ ๋ฐํ์ฑ ์ ์๊ณผ ๋๋ถ์ด ๋ฏผ์กฑ๊ฒฝ์ ๋ก ์ ์ฃผ์ฅํ ์ง๋ณด๊ฒฝ์ ํ์๋ก ๊น๋์ค ์ ๋ํต๋ น์ ๋์ค๊ฒฝ์ ๋ก ์๋ ์ํฅ์ ๋ฏธ์น ๊ฒ์ผ๋ก ์๋ ค์ง๊ณ ์๋ค.
์ค๋์ ํ๊ตญ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ๋ํ ์ง์งํ ๊ณ ์ธ๋ค
『ํ๊ตญ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ๊ณ ํจ』์ ํฌ๊ฒ ์ธ ๋ถ๋ถ์ผ๋ก ๊ตฌ์ฑ๋๋ค. 1๋ถ‘์ฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ ์ฌ๋ ์๋ณธ์ฃผ์ ์ฒด์ ’๋ ์ธ๋ฅ ๋ฐ์ ์ ์๋๋ ฅ์ธ ์ฌ์ ์ฌ์ฐ์ ์ ์ด์ค์ถ๊ตฌ ์๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ์กฐํ๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ์ด๋ฅผ ์ํ ์ ์ ์กฐ๊ฑด์ด ์๋ค. ์ฌ์ ์ฌ์ฐ์ ์ ์ด์ค์ถ๊ตฌ ์๋ฆฌ๊ฐ ๋ณด์ฅ๋๋ ํ๊ฒฝ์์ ์์ฐ๊ฐ๋ค์ ์ฌํ์ ์ฑ ๋ฌด๋ฅผ ๋คํด์ผ ํ๋ค๋ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค. ๊ทธ ์ฌํ์ ์ฑ ๋ฌด๋ฅผ ๋คํ๋ ์์ฐ๊ฐ๋ค์ด ์กด๊ฒฝ๋ฐ๋ ์ฌํ๊ฐ ๋์ด์ผ ์ ๋๋ก ๋ ๊ณณ์ด๋ผ๊ณ ์ญ์คํ๋ค.
์๋ณธ์ฃผ์ ์ฒด์ ๋ฅผ ์ค๋ช ํ 1๋ถ์ ์ด์ 2๋ถ์ ์์ ๋ชฉ์‘์ธ๊ณ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ์์์ ์ด๊ธฐ๋ ๊ธธ’์ด๋ค. ์ฌ๊ธฐ์์๋ ํ๊ตญ์ธ์ด ์๊ธฐ์ ๋ํ ๊ด๋ฆฌ๋ฅ๋ ฅ๊ณผ ๊ธฐํ ํ์ฉ๋ฅ๋ ฅ์ด ๋ฐ์ด๋๊ธฐ ๋๋ฌธ์ ์ด๋ฅผ ๋ฐํ์ผ๋ก ๋ฏผ์กฑ ๋์ง์ฑ ํ๋ณต์ ์ ๊ทน ๋์์๊ณ ์ ์ํ๋ค. ์ด์ฌ ์์ ์๋ฏผ๊ณผ์ ํธํก์ ์ค์ํด ํ ๋ฒ๋ ๊ณจํ๋ฅผ ์น์ง ์์๋ ๊ทธ์ ์ ์์ด๊ธฐ์ ์ค๋๋ ฅ์ ๋ํด์ง๋ค.
3๋ถ ‘์ญ์ฌ๋ ๊ฒฐ์ฝ ๋๋์ง ์์๋ค’์์๋ ์ฌํ์ฃผ์ ๋ชฐ๋ฝ๊ณผ ์๋ณธ์ฃผ์ ์์ฅ๊ฒฝ์ ์ฒด์ ์ ์น๋ฆฌ๋ก ๋๋ณ๋๋ 20์ธ๊ธฐ ์ญ์ฌ๋ฅผ ๋์๋ณธ๋ค. ์ง๋ณดํ์์ธ ๊ทธ์ ์๊ฐ์ ์ด ์ฅ์์ ๋ณด๋ค ์ ๋๋ฌ๋๋ค. ์ฌํ์ฃผ์ ์ฒด์ ์ ๋ชฐ๋ฝ์๋ ํ์ฌ์ ์๋ณธ์ฃผ์ ์ฒด์ ๊ฐ ๋ชจ๋ ๋ชจ์์ ํด๊ฒฐํ๊ณ ์ธ๊ฐ์ ์ด์ฑ์ ์คํํ์ง๋ ๋ชปํ๋ค๊ณ ์ง์ ํ๋ค. ์ง์์ธ๋ค์ด ํ๊ณ ์๋ ์์๋ ฅ๊ณผ ํฉ๋ฆฌ์ ์ธ ์๊ฐ์ ๊ฐ๊ณ ์ญ์ฌ์ ์งํ์ ๋ ๋ํ ํ์์ฑ๋ ์ ๊ธฐ๋๋ค. ๊ทธ์ ์๊ฐ์ ๋น๋ฆฌ๋ฉด ์ด๊ฒ์ ‘ํ์์ฑ’์ ๋์ด์ ์ง์์ธ๊ณผ ์์ฐ๊ฐ๋ค์ ‘์ญ์ฌ์ ์ฑ ๋ฌด’์ผ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค.
์ฒญ๋ ดํ ํ์์ด๋ฉด์ ์ค์ฒํ๋ ์ง์์ธ์ด์๋ ์ค์์ํ ์ด์ฌ
๊ทธ๋ ๋ค๋ฉด ์ ์ ์ด์ฌ๊ฐ ๋ ๋ ์ง 1๋ ์ด ์ง๋ ์ง๊ธ ๊ทธ์ ์ฒ ํ์ด ์ฐ๋ฆฌ์๊ฒ ์ฃผ๋ ์๋ฏธ๋ ๋ฌด์์ผ๊น? 1917๋ ๋ณผ์ ฐ๋นํค ํ๋ช ์ดํ 72๋ ๋์ ์๋ณธ์ฃผ์์ ์ฌํ์ฃผ์ ์ฒด์ ๊ฐ์ ์ฐ์ ๊ฒฝ์์ด ๋ง์ ๋ด๋ฆฐ ์ดํ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ์์ด ์ผ์ํ๋ ํ์ค์์ ๊ทธ์ ์ ์๋ ๊ตํ์ ์ค๋ค. ์ฑ ์ ๊ธ๋ก๋ฒ ์๋์ ํ๊ตญ ๊ฒฝ์ ๊ฐ ๋์๊ฐ์ผ ํ ๊ธธ์ ์์ํ ์์ธ์ด๋ก ํ์ด๋ธ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค. ๋จ์ํ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ์์์ ์ด์๋จ๋ ๋ ธํ์ฐ๋ฅผ ์ ์ํ๋ ๊ฒ ์๋๋ผ, ํ ์ค์ฒ์ ํ์์ ์ง์ํ์ง๋ง ๊น์ด ์๋ ์ธ๋ฆผ์ด๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ค.
์ด์ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ์์ ์ด๋๋ ๊ณ ์ค๋ํ ๊ธฐ์ ์ฒด ๋ชซ์ด ๋ผ ์๊ณ , ์ค์์ํ๊ณผ ๊ฒฝ์ ๊ด๋ จ ๋ถ์ฒ๋ ํ์ธ๋ฅผ ์ ๊ฒํด ์ ์ ํ ์์ ๊ณํ์ ์ธ์์ผ ํ๋ค. ๋ค๋ฅธ ๋๋ผ์ ์ํฉ์ ์ ์๊ณ ์ด๋ค๊ณผ ๊ธด์ฅ๊ณผ ํ๋ ฅ์ ์ด์ค์ฃผ๋ฅผ ์ ์ ํ ํผ์น ๋ ๊ตญ๊ฐ ๊ฒฝ์๋ ฅ์ ๊ฐํ๋๋ ์ธ์์ด๋ค. ์ด๋ฐ ์ํฉ์ด ๊ธฐ์กด์ ์ ์๊ณผ ๋ฌ๋ฆฌ 21์ธ๊ธฐ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ์์์๋ ํ์ํ ๊ฒฝ์ ∙๊ฒฝ์์ธ๊ณผ ๊ธฐ์ ์์ ํ๋ณด๊ฐ ์ค์ํ ์์๊ฐ ๋๋ค.
์ฝ๊ธฐ ์ฌ์ด ๋ฌธ์ฅ๋ค๋ก ์์ ๋ ์ฑ ์ ๋ค์ํ ๊ฒฝ์ ๋ถ์ผ์ ๋ํ ๊น์ด ์๋ ํต์ฐฐ์ ๋ด์ ๊ทธ์ ์ธ์์ญ์ ์ ๋ฐ์ํ ๋ฏํ๋ค. ๊ธ๋ก๋ฒ ๊ฒฝ์ ๊ฐ๊ตญ์ ์กฐ๊ฑด๊ณผ ํจ๊ป ํ๊ตญ์ ๋ฏธ๋๋ฅผ ๋น์ถ๋ ์ด์ ํ๊น์ง ์ ์ํ ์ง๋ณด ๊ฒฝ์ ํ์์ ์ฒ ํ์ ๊น์ด๊ฐ ๋๊ปด์ง๋ ์ฑ ์ด๋ค.
๊ทธ๋ ํ์ชฝ์๋ ์ฒญ๋ ด์ฑ๊ณผ ๋๋์ฑ์ด๋ผ๋ ์ธ๊ฐ์ ์ธ ๋งค๋ ฅ์ ๊น๊ณ , ๋ค๋ฅธ ํ์ชฝ์๋ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ๋ฌธ๊ฐ์ ์ฒ ํ์ ์ง์ผ๋๋ค. ์กฐ์ ์ ๊ฒฝ์ ๋ถ์ด๋ฆฌ๊ฐ ์ถ์ฒ์ฌ์์ ๋ฐํ๋ฏ์ด, ๊ทธ๋ ํ์ ์ด์ฌ ์์ ์ ํตํ์ ์ฉ ์ ์ฑ ์ ์งํ๋ฅผ ํตํ๋์์ ๊ธ๋ฆฌ๋ก ๋ฐ๊พธ๋ฉฐ ๊ตญ๋ด์ ์ ์ง๊ตญํ ๊ธ์ต์์คํ ์ ์์ฅ์ ๋์ ํ ๋น์ฌ์์ด๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฐ๊ฐ ํ๋ฉด ๊ธ์ต์ ๋ฌธ๊ฐ๋ก์ ์ ์ฉํ๋์กฐํฉ์ผ๋ก ๋ํ๋๋ ์์ก๊ธ์ต ํ๋์ ์ ๊ทน ๋์๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ค.
์ธ๋ฅ ๋ฐ์ ์ ์๋๋ ฅ์ธ ์ฌ์ ์ฌ์ฐ ์ ๋์ ์ด์ค ์ถ๊ตฌ์ ๊ตฌ์กฐ๋ฅผ ์ง์์ ์ผ๋ก ๋ฐ์ ์ํค๋ฉด์๋ ์์ฐ๊ฐ๋ค์ ์ฌํ์ ์ฑ ๋ฌด๋ฅผ ๋คํด์ผ ํ๋ค๋ ์ฃผ์ฅ์ ๊ทธ์ ์ฒ ํ์ ์์ฝํ๋ ๋ฌธ๊ตฌ์ด๋ค. ์ ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ “์ฌํ์ง๋์ธต๊ณผ ์๋ฅ์ธต์ด ์ดํธํํ ์๋น์ค ์๋น๋ฅผ ์์ ํ์ง ์์ผ๋ฉด ๊ทผ๊ฒ์ ์ฝ ์ด๋์ด ์ค๋๋ ฅ์ ๊ฐ์ง ์ ์๋ค”๊ฑฐ๋ “ํฐ๋ฌด๋์์ด ๋น์ผ ์ต๊ณ ๊ธ ํธํ ์ ๊ฐ์ข ์ฐํ์ฌ์ ๊ณผ ๋ํ ๊ณ ๊ธ ์์์ค์ด ๋ฒ์ฐฝํด์๋ ์๋๋ค”๊ณ ๊ฐ์กฐํ๋ค. ์ฌํ์ง๋์ธต์ด ์์ ์๋ฒํ๋ ๊ทผ๊ฒ์ ์ฝ ์ ์ ์ด์ผ๋ง๋ก ๊ฐ๋ฐฉ ๋ฌผ๊ฒฐ์ ํค์ณ ๋๊ฐ๋ ์ถ๋ฐ์ ์ผ๋ก ๋ณธ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค.
๊ณ ์ฉ ์์ ์ฑ์ด ํ๋ฌผ์ด์ง๋ ์กฐ๋ฅ์ ์ ์๋ ์ ๋ฌ๋ฏธ ๋ฆฌํํจ์ ์ ์『๋ ธ๋์ ์ข ๋ง』์ ์ธ์ฉํ๋ฉฐ ๋ฏธ๋ ์ ๋ฌธ๊ฐ์ ์๊ฐ๋ ์ฐจ๋ถํ ์ ๋ณด์๋ค. ์ผ๋ก๋ก ๊ณ ๋์ ์ ๋ณดํต์ ์๋น์ค ๋ฐ์ ์ด ๋ ธ๋ ์กฐ๊ฑด์ ๋ณํ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ์ ธ์จ๋ค๊ณ ์ค๋ช ํ๋ค. ๋ ธ๋ ์กฐ๊ฑด์ด ์ข ์ ๊ณ ์ ํ์์ ์์ ์์ ๊ณ ์ฉํ์ผ๋ก, ๋ค์์ ๋จ์๋ ธ๋(80%)์์ ์์์ ์์ฌํ ๋ ธ๋(20%)์ผ๋ก, ๊ณ ์ ๊ธ์์ ๋ฅ๋ ฅ๊ธ์ผ๋ก ๋ฐ๋๋ ํ์ค์ ๋๋นํด์ผ ํ๋ค๋ ์ฃผ์ฅ์ ์ตํ ๋ฃ๋ ์ด์ผ๊ธฐ์ง๋ง ๋ฌด๊ฒ๊ฐ ๋ํด์ง๋ค.
์ดํด ์ง๋จ ๊ฐ์ ๊ฐ๋ฑ ์กฐ์ ๊ณผ ๋๋์ ํด์ด๊ทน๋ณต์ ํ์
ํ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ฅผ ์ง๋ธ ์ํด ์์ ์ ๋ ธํ์๋ ์ด์ ์์ ๊ณผ ๋ฌ๋ผ์ง ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ฌํ ๋ถ์๊ธฐ์ ๋ํ ์ฐ๋ ค๊ฐ๋ ์ง๊ฒ ๋๋ฌ๋๋ค. 1990๋ ๋ ๋ง ์ธํ์๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ๊ทน๋ณตํ๊ณ ๊ฐํ์ ์ถ์งํ๋ ๊ณผ์ ์์ ๊ตญ๋ฏผ์ ์ฌ์ฑ์ด ๋งค์ฐ ๊ฐ๋ฐํ๊ณ ๊ณต๊ฒฉ์ ์ผ๋ก ๋ณํ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค๋ ์ง์ ์ ๊ณต๊ฐ์ ์ฐ๋ค. ๊ตญ๋ฏผ์ ์ ์ ๋ณํ๋ ์๋ฉด์ฑ์ ๊ฐ์ง๋ง, ๋น๋ฒํ๊ฒ ๋ฐ์ํ๋ ์ดํด์ง๋จ ๊ฐ์ ๊ฐ๋ฑ๊ณผ ๋๋์ ํด์ด๋ฅผ ์ํ๊น์ํ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค.
์ ๊ตญ์ ์ธ ์ง๊ฐ ํญ๋ฑ๊ณผ ๋ถ๋์ฐ ํฌ๊ธฐ ์ดํ์ ์๋ฏผ๋ค์ ๊ณ ํต์ด ๊ฐ์ค๋๋ ์์ฆ ์ํฉ์์ ๊ทธ์ ๊ธ์ ์ํ ๊ฐ์ด์ ์ด๋ฃจ๋ง์ ธ์ฃผ๋ ํ ์๋ฒ์ง์ ๋ง์์ฒ๋ผ ์ ํด์ ธ ์จ๋ค. ๋๊ตฌ๋ ๊ฒฝ์ ํ์ ์ ํตํํ์์ด๋ฉด์๋ ์ญ์ฌ, ์ฒ ํ, ์ํ ๋ฑ ๋ค๋ฐฉ๋ฉด์ ๊ฑธ์น ํญ๋์ ์๊ฒฌ๊น์ง ๋๋ฌ๋๋ค. ์ค๋์ ์ฌ๋ ์ง์ฑ์ธ์ ์ด๋ค ์ฌ๋ฌผ๊ณผ ํ์์ ๋ํด ๊น์ด ์ฌ๊ณ ํ๊ณ ์ ์คํ ํ๋์ ํตํด ์ธ์์ ์งํ์ ๋ํ์ผ ํ๋ค๋ ์ฃผ์ฅ์ ๊ณ ๊ฐ๊ฐ ๋๋์ฌ์ง๋ค.
๊ทธ์ ๋ง์ฒ๋ผ ์ฒ ํ ์๋ ์๋์๋ ์ฒ ํ์ด ์ค์๋ฆฌ๊ฐ ์๊ณ , ์ด๋ ์๋๊ฑด ๊น์ ์ฌ์๊ณผ ํ๋์ดํ์ํ๋ค. ์ฌ์ ๋ก์ฐ๋ฉด์๋ ํ๊ณ ํ ์ฒ ํ์ ๊ฐ์งํ ๊ณ ์ธ์ ๋ชจ์ต์ ๋ง๋๋ ๊ฒ์ ์ด ์ฑ ์์ ์ป๋ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ์์ด๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฐ ์ ์์ ์ญ์ฌ๋ฅผ ์งง๊ฒ ๋ณด๋ ์ต๊ด์ ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ฌํ๊ฐ ๊น์ด ๋ฐ์ฑํด์ผ ํ ๋ชซ์ด๋ค.
๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ์ฑ ์ ์ด๋ ๊ฒ ์ด๋ ต๊ฒ ์ถ๊ฐ๋์ง๋ง ๊ณ ์ธ์ ๋ป์ ์ ์ดํผ๋ ค๋ ์ด๋ค์ด ์๊ฐ๋ณด๋ค ๋ง์ง ์์ ์ง์ ์์ฌ์์ผ๋ก ๋จ๋๋ค. ๊ทธ๋๋ง ํ์๊ณผ ์ ํ์ค์ํ๊ฐ ๊ฐ๊ฐ ์ฃผ๋ฌธํ 50๋ถ๋ผ๋ ์ซ์๋ ๊ณ ์ธ์ ์ด๋ฆ์ด ๊ฐ๋ ๋ฌด๊ฒ์ ๋นํด ๋๋ฌด ๊ฐ๋ฒผ์ ๋ณด์ธ๋ค.
๊ทธ์ ํจ๊ป ์ํํ๊ณ ๊ณ ๋ฏผํ๋ ๊ธ์ต๊ณ ์ฌ๋๋ค์ด ๋ณด๋ค ๋ ๋ง์ด ๊ทธ์ ์๊ฐ์ ์ ํ๋ฉด ์ข์ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค. ๊ณ ์ธ์ ๋ ๋ฌ์ง๋ง ๊ณ ์ธ์ ์ฒ ํ๊ณผ ์ฌ์์ ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ๊ณ์ ์งํฌ ํ ๋๊น.
๋ฐ์ข ํ ์ธ๊ณ์ผ๋ณด ๊ธฐ์. (2007) ๊ธ์ต. ์์ธ: ๊ธ์ต์ฐํฉํ.
‘์ง๋ณด๊ฒฝ์ ํ์์ด์ ์ธํ ์๊ธฐ ๊ทน๋ณต ์ ์์ฅ์ฐ๋ ํ๊ตญ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ํฐ ๋ณ์ด ์ง๋ค.’
2004๋ 6์ 18์ผ ์ ์ฒ ํ ์ ํ๊ตญ์ํ ์ด์ฌ๊ฐ ์ฌ์ฅ๋ณ์ผ๋ก ์ธ์์ ๋ ๋์ ์ธ๋ก ๊ณผ ๊ฐ๊ณ ์ธ์ฌ๋ค์ ์ด๋ ๊ฒ ๊ทธ๋ฅผ ๊ธฐ๋ ธ๋ค. ์๊ฐ์ด ํ๋ฅธ ๋ค, ํ๊ตญ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ๋ํ ์ ์ ์ ๋ง์์ ์ ๋ฉด๊ธ๋ฉด ๋ด์ ๊ทธ์ ๊ธ๋ค์ด ํ ๊ถ์ ์ฑ ์ผ๋ก ๋์๋ค.
๊ณ ์ธ์ ์ ๊ณ ์『ํ๊ตญ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ๊ณ ํจ』์ด๋ผ๋ ์ฑ ์ด ๊ทธ๊ฒ์ด๋ค. ๊ณ ์ธ์ ๋ ๋ฌ์ง๋ง ํ๋ฐฐ๋ค์ ํ ๊ถ์ ์ฑ ์ ํตํด์ ๊ทธ์ ๊ฐ๊ฒฐํ๋ ์ ์ ์ ๋์๊ธธ ์ ์๋ค.
“๊ณต์ง์ ์๋ ๋์ ์์๋ค์ด ์ฃผ์ ํฌ์๋ฅผ ํด์๋ ์ ๋๋ค.”
์ฝ ๊ฒ ์ถ๊ฐ๋๋ ์ฑ ์ ๋ง์ง ์๊ฒ ์ง๋ง ๊ณ ์ธ์ ์ฑ ๋ ์ถ๊ฐ๋๊ธฐ๊น์ง ๋ง์ ์ฐ์ฌ๊ณก์ ์ ๊ฒช์๋ค. ์ถํ์ฌ ์๋ผํฌ๋ค์ ๊น์ฐํ ์ฌ์ฅ์ด ์ ์ ์ด์ฌ์๊ฒ ์ฑ ์ถ๊ฐ์ ์ ์ํ ๊ฒ์ ๊ทธ๊ฐ ํ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ก ์ฌ์งํ๋ ๋์๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ๊ณ ๊ฒฐํ ์ฑํ์ ๊ฐ์งํ๋ ๊ทธ๋ ๊ณต์ง์ธ ์ค์์ํ ์ด์ฌ์ ๊ณต์ ์๊ธ๊ด๋ฆฌ์์ํ ์์์ฅ์ผ๋ก ์ฌ์งํ๋ฉด์ ์ฑ ์ ๋ผ ์๋ ์๋ค๊ณ ํ๋ค๊ณ ํ๋ค. ๊ฒฐ๊ตญ ๊ณต์ง์์ ๋ฌผ๋ฌ๋ ๋ค, ๊ฐ์ข ์ธ๋ก ์ ๊ธฐ๊ณ ๋ฌธ์ ๊ฐ์ธ์ ์๊ฐ์ ๋ง๋ถ์ฌ ์๊ณ ๋ฅผ ์์ ํ๋๋ฐ ๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ์๊ณ ๊ฐ ๋น์ ๋ณด๊ธฐ ์ง์ ๊ทธ๋ ์ธ์์ ๋ด๋ค.
์ถํ์ฌ๋ก์ ์์ฌ์์ด ์์๊ฒ ์ง๋ง ์ ์กฑ์๊ฒ ์ถ๊ฐ์ ์ ์ํ ์๋ ์์์ ํฐ. ๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ์ฅ๊ณ ๋ ๊ฒฐ๊ตญ ์ ์กฑ๋ค์ ์์ง์ ๋ฐ๋ผ ๋น์ ๋ณด๊ฒ ๋๋ค. ์ ์กฑ๋ค์ด ์ ํ์ ์ ๋ฆฌํ๋ค๊ฐ ๋ฐ๊ฒฌ๋ ์ถ๊ฐ ๊ณ์ฝ์๋ฅผ ๋ณด๊ณ ์ถํ์ฌ์ ์ฐ๋ฝ์ ํด ๊ณ ์ธ์ ๋ป์ ๋ฐ๋ฅด๊ธฐ๋ก ํ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค.
์ฑ ์ ๋ด์ฉ์ ์ดํด๋ณด๊ธฐ ์ด์ ์ ๋จผ์ ๊ผฌ์ฅ๊ผฌ์ฅํ ์ ๋น์๋ ๊ฐ์ ํ๋๋ฅผ ๋ณด์๋ ๊ทธ์ ์ถ์ ์ดํด๋ณด๋ ๊ฒ ์ข์ ๋ฏํ๋ค. ๊ทธ๊ฐ 1998๋ ๊ตญ๋ฏผ์ ์ ๋ถ์์ ํ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ก ์๋ช ๋ ๋น์์ ์ผํ๋ค์ ์ง๊ธ๋ ๋ง์ ๊ธ์ต์ธ๊ณผ ๊ณต๋ฌด์๋ค ์ฌ์ด์ ํ์ ๊ฐ ๋๋ค. ๊ทธ๊ฐ ํ์์ด์ฌ๋ก ์๋ช ๋์์ ๋ ํ๊ตญ ๊ฒฝ์ ๋ ์ธํ ์๊ธฐ์ ์ด๋ ค์ ์์์ ์ฌ์ ํ ์์ฒ ๋ถ์์ ํต์ฆ์ ํธ์ํ๊ณ ์์๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฐ ์ํฉ์์๋ ์ค์์ํ ์ด์ฌ ์๋ฆฌ๊ฐ ๋ง๋ฅ ์๊ด๋๊ณ ๋ช ์๋กญ๊ธฐ๋ง ํ ์๋ฆฌ๊ฐ ์๋์์ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค.
๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ๊ทธ๋ ๊ฒฐ๊ตญ ์ ๋ถ์ ์ผ๊ณ ์ด๋ ค๋ฅผ ๋ฐ์๋ค์ด๊ธฐ๋ก ํ๋ค. ๊ทธ๊ฐ ํ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ก ์๋ช ๋์ ์ผ๋ถ์์๋ ๋ค์ ์์ธ๋ผ๋ ํ๊ฐ๋ฅผ ๋ด๋๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ค. ๋น์ ๊ทธ์๊ฒ๋ ์ฌ์ผ ํ์์ ์ง๋ฐฉ๋ํ ๊ต์๋ผ๋ ๋ ์ด๋ฏธ์ง๊ฐ ์ง๊ฒ ๋๋ฆฌ์์ ธ ์์๋ค. ์ถฉ๋จ๋ํ๊ต ๊ต์ ์ฌ์ง ์์ ํ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ก ์๋ช ๋์ ๊ทธ๋ ์ฃผ์ ์์ด ๊ต์์ง์ ์ฌ์ํ๋ค. “ํ์ ์ด์ฌํด์ ํ์๋ ๊ต์ ์ ๋ ๋ ์ผ๋ง ๋จ์ง ์๋๋ค”๋ ๋ง์ ํ๊ณ์ ๋ถ๊ณผํ๊ณ , ๊ณต์ฌ ๊ตฌ๋ณ์ ์ ๋ ์ด ํ๊ณ ํ๊ธฐ์ ๊ฐ๋ฅํ ๊ฒฐ์ ์ด์๋ค. ์์ ๊ต์๊ฐ ์ ๋ถ์ ๊ธฐ๊ด์ฅ์ด ๋๋ฉด ํ๊ต ๋ช ์์ ๋ฐ์ ์๋ ๋์์ด ๋๋ค๋ ์ ์ ๋ค์ด ์ถฉ๋จ๋๋ ๊ทธ์ ๊ต์์ง ์ ์ง๋ฅผ ํฌ๋งํ๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ๊ทธ๋ด์๋ก ๊ทธ์ ์ฌ๊ณง์ ์ฒ์ ๋ง ๋๋ณด์๋ค.
๋ ํ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ก ์๋ช ๋์ ๊ทธ๋ ๊ณง ‘์์ ์ ๊ฐ’์ ๋์ฐ๋ค. ๊ณง๋ฐ๋ก ๋ ์๋ค์ ๋ถ๋ฌ ์ฃผ์ ํฌ์ ๋ด์ฉ์ ์์ธํ ๋ฌผ์๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ ๋จ๊ธด ๋ง์ ๊ฐ๋จ๋ช ๋ฃํ๋ค. “๋ด๊ฐ ํ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ก ์ฌ์งํ๋ ๋์์๋ ์ผ์ฒด์ ์ฃผ์์ ์ฌ๊ฑฐ๋ ํ์ง ๋ง๋ผ.”๊ณ ๋ง๊ฒ๋ ์์๋ค์ ๊ทธ ๋ง์ ์ ๋ฐ๋ผ์ฃผ์๊ณ , ์ ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ ํ์ฌ ์์ธ๋ํ ๋ณ์ ์์ฌ์ ํ๋ฒ์ฌํ์ ํ๋ฒ์ฐ๊ตฌ๊ด์ผ๋ก ์ฌ์ง ์ค์ธ ๋ ์๋ค์ ๊ฒฐํผ์์ ํ์ ์ง์๋ค๋ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๊ฒ ์น๋ ๋ค.
์ฑ๊ณตํ ์ค์์ํ ์ด์ฌ๊ฐ ๋ ์ง๋ณดํ์
๊ทธ์ ์ฌ์ ๊ธฐ๊ฐ์ ํตํด ํ์์ ์ง๋ถ์ค๋น๊ธ์ด๋ ๊ด๋ฆฌํ๋ ์ค์์ํ์ด๋ผ๋ ์ด๋ฏธ์ง์์ ๊ธ์ต์์ฅ ๊ด๋ฆฌ์๋ก ์ด๋ฏธ์ง๋ฅผ ๋ฐ๊ฟจ๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ ์ ๋น์ ๊ฐ์ ์ฑ์ ์ ์ง๋ ์ผ๋ฉด์๋ ์ผ์ ๋ํ ์ถ์ง๋ ฅ์ ๋จ๋ฌ๋๋ ๋ฏํ๋ค. ๊ฒฝ๊ธฐ๊ฐ ์นจ์ฒด ๊ตญ๋ฉด์ผ๋ก ๋์์ 2001๋ 7์์๋ ๊ธ๋ฆฌ ์ธํ๋ฅผ ๊ด์ฒ ํ๊ธฐ ์ํ ‘๋ฌด์ ํ ํ์’๋ฅผ ์งํํ๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ค. 2001๋ 9์ ๋ฏธ๊ตญ ํ ๋ฌ ์ฌํ ์งํ์๋ ์ฌ์ ์ต๋ ์ธ 0.5% ํฌ์ธํธ์ ๊ธ๋ฆฌ ์ธํ๋ฅผ ๋จํํ๋ค. ๊ทธ์ ์์ ๋ํ์ ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ๋ฏธ์น๋ ์ธ๋ถ ์ถฉ๊ฒฉ์ ์กฐ๊ธฐ์ ์ฐจ๋จํ๋ ํจ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๋ณด๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ค. ๊ธ๋ฆฌ ์ธํ ์์ ์ ๋์น์ง ์์๋ค๋ ํ๊ฐ๋ ๊ทธ๋์ ๋์๋ค. ๋ฏธ๊ตญ์ ์จ๋ฐ ๊ทธ๋ฆฐ์คํ ์ฐ๋ฐฉ์ค๋น์ ๋์ด์ฌํ ์์ฅ์ด ์๋ค๋ฉด, ์ฐ๋ฆฌ์๊ฒ๋‘์ ์ฒ ํ์ด ์๋ค’๋ ๋ฏฟ์์ ์์ฅ์ ์ค ๊ฒ์ด๋ค.
2002 ๋ 4์ ์๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ๋ง์น๊ณ ๋ฌผ๋ฌ๋ฌ์ ๋๋ ๋ฐ๋ฐฑ๋ ์ด ๋๋ ํ์ ์ญ์ฌ๋ฅผ ํตํ์ด ์๊ธฐ(4๋ )๋ฅผ ์จ์ ํ ๋ง์น ๋ค์ฏ ๋ฒ์งธ ์ด์ฌ๋ก ๊ธฐ๋ก๋๋ค. ๊ทธ์ ๋ํ ํ๊ฐ๋ ๋น๋จ ๋ฌผ๋ฆฌ์ ์์น๋ง์ ๋ฐฐ๊ฒฝ์ผ๋ก ํ์ง ์๋๋ค. ํด์ ๋น์ ํ์ ์์ง์๊ณผ ์ถ์ ๊ธฐ์๋ค๋ก๋ถํฐ ๊ฐ์ฌํจ๋ฅผ ๋ฐ๋ ํ์น ์์ ์ฅ๋ฉด์ด ํฌ์ฐฉ๋๋ค. ๋น์ ์ธ๋ก ์ด ํ์ ์ญ์ฌ์ ์ผ์ฐ์ด ์์๋ ์ผ์ด๋ผ๋ฉฐ ๋์ด ํ๊ฐํ ๊ฒ๋ ๋ฌด๋ฆฌ๋ ์๋์๋ค. ํด์ํ๋ ๋ ๊ทธ๋ ๋ง์กฑํ์ง๋ง ์ญ์๋ ๊ฒธ์์ ๊ฐ์ถ ์ ๋น์ ๋ชจ์ต์ ๋ณด์ฌ์ฃผ์๋ค. ์ถ์ ๊ธฐ์๋ค์๊ฒ ๋จ๊ธด“์ด๋ ค์ธ ๋ ๋ค์ด์ ์ข์ ๋ ๋๊ฐ ๊ธฐ๋ถ์ด ์ข๋ค. ๊ฒฝ์ ๋ ์ด๋ ์ ๋ ์์ ๋ ์ํฉ์์ ํด์ํ๊ฒ ๋ผ ๋ ์ด์ ๋ฐ๋ ๊ฒ ์๋ค”๋ ๊ฐํ ์ ๋๊ฐ ๊ณ ์์ด์๋ค.
์์ฐํ ๋ชธ๊ฐ์ง์ ์์ง ์๊ณ ์ ๋ ธ๋ ฅํ๋ ๊ทธ๋ ๋ช ๋ฌ ํ ์ ๋ถ์ ๊ณต์ ์๊ธ๊ด๋ฆฌ์์์ฅ์ผ๋ก ๋์์๋ค. ๋ค์ ๊ณต์ง์ ๋งก๊ธธ ์์น ์์๋ ๊ทธ์๊ฒ ์ํ ํฉ๋ณ ๋ฑ ์๋ฏผํ ๋ฌธ์ ๋ฅผ ๋ค๋ฃจ๋ฉฐ ์ดํด ๋น์ฌ์๋ฅผ ์ค๋ํด ๋ด๊ธฐ์ ๊ทธ๋งํ ์ธ๋ฌผ์ ์ฐพ๊ธฐ ํ๋ค์๋ ์ ๋ถ์ ๋น์ฐํ ๊ฒฐ์ ์ด์๋ค.
์ข ๋ ์๋๋ฅผ ๊ฑฐ์ฌ๋ฌ ์ฌ๋ผ๊ฐ ๋ณด๋ฉด ๊ทธ๋ 1960๋ ๊ณ ์ ํ์ ๊ณผ์ ํฉ๊ฒฉํด 1963๋ ๋ถํฐ ๊ฒฝ์ ๊ธฐํ์๊ณผ ๊ตํต๋ถ ๋ฑ์์ ๊ทผ๋ฌดํ๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ๊ผฌ์ฅ๊ผฌ์ฅํ ์ฑ๊ฒฉ์ ๊ทธ๋ฅผ ํ์๋ฆฌ์ ๋จธ๋ฌผ์ง ๋ชปํ๊ฒ ํ๋ค. ์ ๋ถ์ ์ ์ฑ ๊ณผ ์์ ์ ์ฒ ํ์ด ๋ง์ง ์์, ๊ณ ์ ๊ณต์ง์์ ๊ธธ์ ๋ฒ๋ฆฌ๊ณ ๋ํ์ผ๋ก ์๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ์ฎ๊ฒผ๋ค.
๋ถ์ธ์ธ ์ด๊ฒฝ์ ์ถฉ๋จ๋ ๊ตญ๋ฌธ๊ณผ ๊ต์์ ํจ๊ป ํ๋ ๋ถ๋ถ ๊ต์๋ก ์ด๋ฆ์ ๋์ด๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ ์ถฉ๋จ๋ ๊ต์ ์ฌ์ง ์์ ๋ถํฐ‘์๋ฏผ ๊ธ์ต์ ํ์ฑํ’๋ฅผ ์ฃผ์ฅํด์จ ์ ์ฉํ๋์กฐํฉ์ ์ค๋ ์กฐํฉ์์ ๊ธธ์ ๊ฑท๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ ์ง๋ณดํ์์ด๋ฉด์ ๋์ชฝ ํ์์๋ค. ๊ณต์ง์ ์์ ๋ ๊ณจํ๋ฅผ ์น์ง ์์๊ณ , ํ์์ ๋ ๋ด๋ ค๊ฐ ์์ ์ ํ๋ผ์ด๋ ์น์ฉ์ฐจ๋ฅผ ๊ฑฑ์ ํ ์ฒญ๋ ดํ ํ์ ์ด์ฌ์ด๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ค.
photo by ํ๊ฒจ๋
๊ทธ๋ฐ๊ฐ ํ๋ฉด ๊ทธ๋ ๊น๊ตฌ ์ ์์ ํํธ ‘๋ ธ๋์ ์ฑ’์ ๊ฑธ์ด๋๊ณ ์ข์ฐ๋ช ์ผ๋ก ์ผ์ ์ ๊ตญ์์๋ค. ์ค๋ ์ ์ ํ๊ณํ ๋ฐํ์ฑ ์ ์๊ณผ ๋๋ถ์ด ๋ฏผ์กฑ๊ฒฝ์ ๋ก ์ ์ฃผ์ฅํ ์ง๋ณด๊ฒฝ์ ํ์๋ก ๊น๋์ค ์ ๋ํต๋ น์ ๋์ค๊ฒฝ์ ๋ก ์๋ ์ํฅ์ ๋ฏธ์น ๊ฒ์ผ๋ก ์๋ ค์ง๊ณ ์๋ค.
์ค๋์ ํ๊ตญ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ๋ํ ์ง์งํ ๊ณ ์ธ๋ค
『ํ๊ตญ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ๊ณ ํจ』์ ํฌ๊ฒ ์ธ ๋ถ๋ถ์ผ๋ก ๊ตฌ์ฑ๋๋ค. 1๋ถ‘์ฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ ์ฌ๋ ์๋ณธ์ฃผ์ ์ฒด์ ’๋ ์ธ๋ฅ ๋ฐ์ ์ ์๋๋ ฅ์ธ ์ฌ์ ์ฌ์ฐ์ ์ ์ด์ค์ถ๊ตฌ ์๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ์กฐํ๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ์ด๋ฅผ ์ํ ์ ์ ์กฐ๊ฑด์ด ์๋ค. ์ฌ์ ์ฌ์ฐ์ ์ ์ด์ค์ถ๊ตฌ ์๋ฆฌ๊ฐ ๋ณด์ฅ๋๋ ํ๊ฒฝ์์ ์์ฐ๊ฐ๋ค์ ์ฌํ์ ์ฑ ๋ฌด๋ฅผ ๋คํด์ผ ํ๋ค๋ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค. ๊ทธ ์ฌํ์ ์ฑ ๋ฌด๋ฅผ ๋คํ๋ ์์ฐ๊ฐ๋ค์ด ์กด๊ฒฝ๋ฐ๋ ์ฌํ๊ฐ ๋์ด์ผ ์ ๋๋ก ๋ ๊ณณ์ด๋ผ๊ณ ์ญ์คํ๋ค.
์๋ณธ์ฃผ์ ์ฒด์ ๋ฅผ ์ค๋ช ํ 1๋ถ์ ์ด์ 2๋ถ์ ์์ ๋ชฉ์‘์ธ๊ณ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ์์์ ์ด๊ธฐ๋ ๊ธธ’์ด๋ค. ์ฌ๊ธฐ์์๋ ํ๊ตญ์ธ์ด ์๊ธฐ์ ๋ํ ๊ด๋ฆฌ๋ฅ๋ ฅ๊ณผ ๊ธฐํ ํ์ฉ๋ฅ๋ ฅ์ด ๋ฐ์ด๋๊ธฐ ๋๋ฌธ์ ์ด๋ฅผ ๋ฐํ์ผ๋ก ๋ฏผ์กฑ ๋์ง์ฑ ํ๋ณต์ ์ ๊ทน ๋์์๊ณ ์ ์ํ๋ค. ์ด์ฌ ์์ ์๋ฏผ๊ณผ์ ํธํก์ ์ค์ํด ํ ๋ฒ๋ ๊ณจํ๋ฅผ ์น์ง ์์๋ ๊ทธ์ ์ ์์ด๊ธฐ์ ์ค๋๋ ฅ์ ๋ํด์ง๋ค.
3๋ถ ‘์ญ์ฌ๋ ๊ฒฐ์ฝ ๋๋์ง ์์๋ค’์์๋ ์ฌํ์ฃผ์ ๋ชฐ๋ฝ๊ณผ ์๋ณธ์ฃผ์ ์์ฅ๊ฒฝ์ ์ฒด์ ์ ์น๋ฆฌ๋ก ๋๋ณ๋๋ 20์ธ๊ธฐ ์ญ์ฌ๋ฅผ ๋์๋ณธ๋ค. ์ง๋ณดํ์์ธ ๊ทธ์ ์๊ฐ์ ์ด ์ฅ์์ ๋ณด๋ค ์ ๋๋ฌ๋๋ค. ์ฌํ์ฃผ์ ์ฒด์ ์ ๋ชฐ๋ฝ์๋ ํ์ฌ์ ์๋ณธ์ฃผ์ ์ฒด์ ๊ฐ ๋ชจ๋ ๋ชจ์์ ํด๊ฒฐํ๊ณ ์ธ๊ฐ์ ์ด์ฑ์ ์คํํ์ง๋ ๋ชปํ๋ค๊ณ ์ง์ ํ๋ค. ์ง์์ธ๋ค์ด ํ๊ณ ์๋ ์์๋ ฅ๊ณผ ํฉ๋ฆฌ์ ์ธ ์๊ฐ์ ๊ฐ๊ณ ์ญ์ฌ์ ์งํ์ ๋ ๋ํ ํ์์ฑ๋ ์ ๊ธฐ๋๋ค. ๊ทธ์ ์๊ฐ์ ๋น๋ฆฌ๋ฉด ์ด๊ฒ์ ‘ํ์์ฑ’์ ๋์ด์ ์ง์์ธ๊ณผ ์์ฐ๊ฐ๋ค์ ‘์ญ์ฌ์ ์ฑ ๋ฌด’์ผ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค.
์ฒญ๋ ดํ ํ์์ด๋ฉด์ ์ค์ฒํ๋ ์ง์์ธ์ด์๋ ์ค์์ํ ์ด์ฌ
๊ทธ๋ ๋ค๋ฉด ์ ์ ์ด์ฌ๊ฐ ๋ ๋ ์ง 1๋ ์ด ์ง๋ ์ง๊ธ ๊ทธ์ ์ฒ ํ์ด ์ฐ๋ฆฌ์๊ฒ ์ฃผ๋ ์๋ฏธ๋ ๋ฌด์์ผ๊น? 1917๋ ๋ณผ์ ฐ๋นํค ํ๋ช ์ดํ 72๋ ๋์ ์๋ณธ์ฃผ์์ ์ฌํ์ฃผ์ ์ฒด์ ๊ฐ์ ์ฐ์ ๊ฒฝ์์ด ๋ง์ ๋ด๋ฆฐ ์ดํ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ์์ด ์ผ์ํ๋ ํ์ค์์ ๊ทธ์ ์ ์๋ ๊ตํ์ ์ค๋ค. ์ฑ ์ ๊ธ๋ก๋ฒ ์๋์ ํ๊ตญ ๊ฒฝ์ ๊ฐ ๋์๊ฐ์ผ ํ ๊ธธ์ ์์ํ ์์ธ์ด๋ก ํ์ด๋ธ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค. ๋จ์ํ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ์์์ ์ด์๋จ๋ ๋ ธํ์ฐ๋ฅผ ์ ์ํ๋ ๊ฒ ์๋๋ผ, ํ ์ค์ฒ์ ํ์์ ์ง์ํ์ง๋ง ๊น์ด ์๋ ์ธ๋ฆผ์ด๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ค.
์ด์ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ์์ ์ด๋๋ ๊ณ ์ค๋ํ ๊ธฐ์ ์ฒด ๋ชซ์ด ๋ผ ์๊ณ , ์ค์์ํ๊ณผ ๊ฒฝ์ ๊ด๋ จ ๋ถ์ฒ๋ ํ์ธ๋ฅผ ์ ๊ฒํด ์ ์ ํ ์์ ๊ณํ์ ์ธ์์ผ ํ๋ค. ๋ค๋ฅธ ๋๋ผ์ ์ํฉ์ ์ ์๊ณ ์ด๋ค๊ณผ ๊ธด์ฅ๊ณผ ํ๋ ฅ์ ์ด์ค์ฃผ๋ฅผ ์ ์ ํ ํผ์น ๋ ๊ตญ๊ฐ ๊ฒฝ์๋ ฅ์ ๊ฐํ๋๋ ์ธ์์ด๋ค. ์ด๋ฐ ์ํฉ์ด ๊ธฐ์กด์ ์ ์๊ณผ ๋ฌ๋ฆฌ 21์ธ๊ธฐ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ์์์๋ ํ์ํ ๊ฒฝ์ ∙๊ฒฝ์์ธ๊ณผ ๊ธฐ์ ์์ ํ๋ณด๊ฐ ์ค์ํ ์์๊ฐ ๋๋ค.
์ฝ๊ธฐ ์ฌ์ด ๋ฌธ์ฅ๋ค๋ก ์์ ๋ ์ฑ ์ ๋ค์ํ ๊ฒฝ์ ๋ถ์ผ์ ๋ํ ๊น์ด ์๋ ํต์ฐฐ์ ๋ด์ ๊ทธ์ ์ธ์์ญ์ ์ ๋ฐ์ํ ๋ฏํ๋ค. ๊ธ๋ก๋ฒ ๊ฒฝ์ ๊ฐ๊ตญ์ ์กฐ๊ฑด๊ณผ ํจ๊ป ํ๊ตญ์ ๋ฏธ๋๋ฅผ ๋น์ถ๋ ์ด์ ํ๊น์ง ์ ์ํ ์ง๋ณด ๊ฒฝ์ ํ์์ ์ฒ ํ์ ๊น์ด๊ฐ ๋๊ปด์ง๋ ์ฑ ์ด๋ค.
๊ทธ๋ ํ์ชฝ์๋ ์ฒญ๋ ด์ฑ๊ณผ ๋๋์ฑ์ด๋ผ๋ ์ธ๊ฐ์ ์ธ ๋งค๋ ฅ์ ๊น๊ณ , ๋ค๋ฅธ ํ์ชฝ์๋ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ ๋ฌธ๊ฐ์ ์ฒ ํ์ ์ง์ผ๋๋ค. ์กฐ์ ์ ๊ฒฝ์ ๋ถ์ด๋ฆฌ๊ฐ ์ถ์ฒ์ฌ์์ ๋ฐํ๋ฏ์ด, ๊ทธ๋ ํ์ ์ด์ฌ ์์ ์ ํตํ์ ์ฉ ์ ์ฑ ์ ์งํ๋ฅผ ํตํ๋์์ ๊ธ๋ฆฌ๋ก ๋ฐ๊พธ๋ฉฐ ๊ตญ๋ด์ ์ ์ง๊ตญํ ๊ธ์ต์์คํ ์ ์์ฅ์ ๋์ ํ ๋น์ฌ์์ด๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฐ๊ฐ ํ๋ฉด ๊ธ์ต์ ๋ฌธ๊ฐ๋ก์ ์ ์ฉํ๋์กฐํฉ์ผ๋ก ๋ํ๋๋ ์์ก๊ธ์ต ํ๋์ ์ ๊ทน ๋์๊ธฐ๋ ํ๋ค.
์ธ๋ฅ ๋ฐ์ ์ ์๋๋ ฅ์ธ ์ฌ์ ์ฌ์ฐ ์ ๋์ ์ด์ค ์ถ๊ตฌ์ ๊ตฌ์กฐ๋ฅผ ์ง์์ ์ผ๋ก ๋ฐ์ ์ํค๋ฉด์๋ ์์ฐ๊ฐ๋ค์ ์ฌํ์ ์ฑ ๋ฌด๋ฅผ ๋คํด์ผ ํ๋ค๋ ์ฃผ์ฅ์ ๊ทธ์ ์ฒ ํ์ ์์ฝํ๋ ๋ฌธ๊ตฌ์ด๋ค. ์ ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ “์ฌํ์ง๋์ธต๊ณผ ์๋ฅ์ธต์ด ์ดํธํํ ์๋น์ค ์๋น๋ฅผ ์์ ํ์ง ์์ผ๋ฉด ๊ทผ๊ฒ์ ์ฝ ์ด๋์ด ์ค๋๋ ฅ์ ๊ฐ์ง ์ ์๋ค”๊ฑฐ๋ “ํฐ๋ฌด๋์์ด ๋น์ผ ์ต๊ณ ๊ธ ํธํ ์ ๊ฐ์ข ์ฐํ์ฌ์ ๊ณผ ๋ํ ๊ณ ๊ธ ์์์ค์ด ๋ฒ์ฐฝํด์๋ ์๋๋ค”๊ณ ๊ฐ์กฐํ๋ค. ์ฌํ์ง๋์ธต์ด ์์ ์๋ฒํ๋ ๊ทผ๊ฒ์ ์ฝ ์ ์ ์ด์ผ๋ง๋ก ๊ฐ๋ฐฉ ๋ฌผ๊ฒฐ์ ํค์ณ ๋๊ฐ๋ ์ถ๋ฐ์ ์ผ๋ก ๋ณธ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค.
๊ณ ์ฉ ์์ ์ฑ์ด ํ๋ฌผ์ด์ง๋ ์กฐ๋ฅ์ ์ ์๋ ์ ๋ฌ๋ฏธ ๋ฆฌํํจ์ ์ ์『๋ ธ๋์ ์ข ๋ง』์ ์ธ์ฉํ๋ฉฐ ๋ฏธ๋ ์ ๋ฌธ๊ฐ์ ์๊ฐ๋ ์ฐจ๋ถํ ์ ๋ณด์๋ค. ์ผ๋ก๋ก ๊ณ ๋์ ์ ๋ณดํต์ ์๋น์ค ๋ฐ์ ์ด ๋ ธ๋ ์กฐ๊ฑด์ ๋ณํ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ์ ธ์จ๋ค๊ณ ์ค๋ช ํ๋ค. ๋ ธ๋ ์กฐ๊ฑด์ด ์ข ์ ๊ณ ์ ํ์์ ์์ ์์ ๊ณ ์ฉํ์ผ๋ก, ๋ค์์ ๋จ์๋ ธ๋(80%)์์ ์์์ ์์ฌํ ๋ ธ๋(20%)์ผ๋ก, ๊ณ ์ ๊ธ์์ ๋ฅ๋ ฅ๊ธ์ผ๋ก ๋ฐ๋๋ ํ์ค์ ๋๋นํด์ผ ํ๋ค๋ ์ฃผ์ฅ์ ์ตํ ๋ฃ๋ ์ด์ผ๊ธฐ์ง๋ง ๋ฌด๊ฒ๊ฐ ๋ํด์ง๋ค.
์ดํด ์ง๋จ ๊ฐ์ ๊ฐ๋ฑ ์กฐ์ ๊ณผ ๋๋์ ํด์ด๊ทน๋ณต์ ํ์
ํ์ ์ด์ฌ๋ฅผ ์ง๋ธ ์ํด ์์ ์ ๋ ธํ์๋ ์ด์ ์์ ๊ณผ ๋ฌ๋ผ์ง ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ฌํ ๋ถ์๊ธฐ์ ๋ํ ์ฐ๋ ค๊ฐ๋ ์ง๊ฒ ๋๋ฌ๋๋ค. 1990๋ ๋ ๋ง ์ธํ์๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ๊ทน๋ณตํ๊ณ ๊ฐํ์ ์ถ์งํ๋ ๊ณผ์ ์์ ๊ตญ๋ฏผ์ ์ฌ์ฑ์ด ๋งค์ฐ ๊ฐ๋ฐํ๊ณ ๊ณต๊ฒฉ์ ์ผ๋ก ๋ณํ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค๋ ์ง์ ์ ๊ณต๊ฐ์ ์ฐ๋ค. ๊ตญ๋ฏผ์ ์ ์ ๋ณํ๋ ์๋ฉด์ฑ์ ๊ฐ์ง๋ง, ๋น๋ฒํ๊ฒ ๋ฐ์ํ๋ ์ดํด์ง๋จ ๊ฐ์ ๊ฐ๋ฑ๊ณผ ๋๋์ ํด์ด๋ฅผ ์ํ๊น์ํ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค.
์ ๊ตญ์ ์ธ ์ง๊ฐ ํญ๋ฑ๊ณผ ๋ถ๋์ฐ ํฌ๊ธฐ ์ดํ์ ์๋ฏผ๋ค์ ๊ณ ํต์ด ๊ฐ์ค๋๋ ์์ฆ ์ํฉ์์ ๊ทธ์ ๊ธ์ ์ํ ๊ฐ์ด์ ์ด๋ฃจ๋ง์ ธ์ฃผ๋ ํ ์๋ฒ์ง์ ๋ง์์ฒ๋ผ ์ ํด์ ธ ์จ๋ค. ๋๊ตฌ๋ ๊ฒฝ์ ํ์ ์ ํตํํ์์ด๋ฉด์๋ ์ญ์ฌ, ์ฒ ํ, ์ํ ๋ฑ ๋ค๋ฐฉ๋ฉด์ ๊ฑธ์น ํญ๋์ ์๊ฒฌ๊น์ง ๋๋ฌ๋๋ค. ์ค๋์ ์ฌ๋ ์ง์ฑ์ธ์ ์ด๋ค ์ฌ๋ฌผ๊ณผ ํ์์ ๋ํด ๊น์ด ์ฌ๊ณ ํ๊ณ ์ ์คํ ํ๋์ ํตํด ์ธ์์ ์งํ์ ๋ํ์ผ ํ๋ค๋ ์ฃผ์ฅ์ ๊ณ ๊ฐ๊ฐ ๋๋์ฌ์ง๋ค.
๊ทธ์ ๋ง์ฒ๋ผ ์ฒ ํ ์๋ ์๋์๋ ์ฒ ํ์ด ์ค์๋ฆฌ๊ฐ ์๊ณ , ์ด๋ ์๋๊ฑด ๊น์ ์ฌ์๊ณผ ํ๋์ดํ์ํ๋ค. ์ฌ์ ๋ก์ฐ๋ฉด์๋ ํ๊ณ ํ ์ฒ ํ์ ๊ฐ์งํ ๊ณ ์ธ์ ๋ชจ์ต์ ๋ง๋๋ ๊ฒ์ ์ด ์ฑ ์์ ์ป๋ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ์์ด๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฐ ์ ์์ ์ญ์ฌ๋ฅผ ์งง๊ฒ ๋ณด๋ ์ต๊ด์ ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ฌํ๊ฐ ๊น์ด ๋ฐ์ฑํด์ผ ํ ๋ชซ์ด๋ค.
๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ์ฑ ์ ์ด๋ ๊ฒ ์ด๋ ต๊ฒ ์ถ๊ฐ๋์ง๋ง ๊ณ ์ธ์ ๋ป์ ์ ์ดํผ๋ ค๋ ์ด๋ค์ด ์๊ฐ๋ณด๋ค ๋ง์ง ์์ ์ง์ ์์ฌ์์ผ๋ก ๋จ๋๋ค. ๊ทธ๋๋ง ํ์๊ณผ ์ ํ์ค์ํ๊ฐ ๊ฐ๊ฐ ์ฃผ๋ฌธํ 50๋ถ๋ผ๋ ์ซ์๋ ๊ณ ์ธ์ ์ด๋ฆ์ด ๊ฐ๋ ๋ฌด๊ฒ์ ๋นํด ๋๋ฌด ๊ฐ๋ฒผ์ ๋ณด์ธ๋ค.
๊ทธ์ ํจ๊ป ์ํํ๊ณ ๊ณ ๋ฏผํ๋ ๊ธ์ต๊ณ ์ฌ๋๋ค์ด ๋ณด๋ค ๋ ๋ง์ด ๊ทธ์ ์๊ฐ์ ์ ํ๋ฉด ์ข์ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค. ๊ณ ์ธ์ ๋ ๋ฌ์ง๋ง ๊ณ ์ธ์ ์ฒ ํ๊ณผ ์ฌ์์ ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ๊ณ์ ์งํฌ ํ ๋๊น.
๋ฐ์ข ํ ์ธ๊ณ์ผ๋ณด ๊ธฐ์. (2007) ๊ธ์ต. ์์ธ: ๊ธ์ต์ฐํฉํ.
Monday, July 07, 2008
How systematic, specific, and detailed it should be?
The analysis in the rest of this book will make use of the theoretical framework presented in this section. However, each practical analysis, especially of large corpora of data, has its limits. Whereas it is still possible to derive intuitively the major topics of hundreds or even thousands of news reports, we are unable to specify all their detailed syntactic, stylistic, or semantic structure. For that kind of analysis we are still restricted to a qualitative analysis of representative samples of text. In addition, a theoretically based analysis may be systematic and explicit but need not always be relevant with respect to the specific aims or questions of an investigation. Thus, in order to show ideological bias, it may be pointless to try to provide the precise syntactic structures of all sentences of a sample of news reports. Such an analysis would be relevant at most for a combined quantitative and grammatical analysis of the syntactic structures of newspaper language. In the qualitative analysis of a selection of sentences that aims to show the syntactic codification of news actor roles, it may be more relevant to describe how it is done than how often. In other words, systematic structural analysis has important advantages over a more intuitive content analysis, especially for more detailed studies of news reporting, but it still has its limitations when applied to the general quantitative aspects of news reporting. Nevertheless, it may provide sound definitions of, and new proposals for, the units used in quantitative content analysis, such as topics, or the presence or absence of specific schematic categories, such as history or context (p. 18).
van Dijk, Teun A. (1988). News analysis: Case studies of international and national news in the press. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum.
van Dijk, Teun A. (1988). News analysis: Case studies of international and national news in the press. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum.
Sunday, July 06, 2008
"No Fake News," an article from the Free Press
Keep Local TV Newscasts Free of Hidden Corporate Propaganda
Free Press and the Center for Media and Democracy (CMD) have revealed that corporate propaganda continues to infiltrate local television news across the country.
Stations are slipping corporate-sponsored "video news releases" or VNRs promotional segments designed to look like objective news reports into their regular news programming. This deception is illegal under FCC rules.
A series of CMD investigations have caught 113 local stations airing VNRs without proper disclosure. Free Press and CMD have filed complaints with the FCC, urging the agency to take action against all stations that have violated sponsorship identification rules. So far, the FCC has fined only one cable channel for airing fake news.
Tell the FCC to Crack Down on Local News Deception
Read the Center for Media and Democracy's Report
The FCC Finally Cracks Down on Fake News
CMD's first report in April 2006 snared 77 stations airing VNRs without disclosure. A follow-up study in November 2006, "Still Not the News," caught an additional 46 stations red-handed.
Free Press and CMD have filed a series of complaints with the FCC about fake news, and tens of thousands of concerned citizens have contacted the agency. In response, the FCC has finally started to act against stations airing fake news.
In September 2007, the FCC announced fines for Comcast for airing five separate VNRs on its CN8 channel without identifying their sponsors. But the FCC still needs to do more to stop widespread VNR abuse. It should start by taking action against the more than 100 other stations caught broadcasting VNRs without disclosure.
Put Your Local Station on Notice
The use of VNRs without sponsorship identification is a breach of the trust between local stations and their communities.
By disguising advertisements as news, stations violate both the spirit and the letter of their broadcasting licenses, which obligate them to use the public airwaves to serve the public.
Free Press and CMD continue to pressure federal agencies to guard our airwaves against the spread of fake news.
But to keep the pressure on, we need your help. You can send a strong message to the FCC: Enforce and clarify existing rules and penalize all broadcasters that air fake news.
Tell the FCC to Crack Down on Local News Deception
The Big Media Profit Motive
More than 80 percent of the stations snared in CMD's research are owned by large conglomerates. A list of the worst offenders reads like a who's who of Big Media, including stations owned by:
* Tribune Company (9 stations)
* Sinclair Broadcast Group (8 stations)
* News Corp/Fox Television (8 stations)
* Viacom/CBS Corp (6 stations)
The evidence suggests a strong tie between media consolidation and the use of deceptive, pre-packaged propaganda.
There's a reason for this: VNRs are free. Reporting news that's meaningful to local communities isn't. By opting to air a VNR instead of sending a reporter into the field, station owners save a fortune.
Corporate PR firms offer local stations VNRs knowing there's a built-in incentive to use them. By dressing up fake news as local reporting, stations cut costs and increase profits.
Tell the FCC to Stop Fake Local News
Free Press and the Center for Media and Democracy (CMD) have revealed that corporate propaganda continues to infiltrate local television news across the country.
Stations are slipping corporate-sponsored "video news releases" or VNRs promotional segments designed to look like objective news reports into their regular news programming. This deception is illegal under FCC rules.
A series of CMD investigations have caught 113 local stations airing VNRs without proper disclosure. Free Press and CMD have filed complaints with the FCC, urging the agency to take action against all stations that have violated sponsorship identification rules. So far, the FCC has fined only one cable channel for airing fake news.
Tell the FCC to Crack Down on Local News Deception
Read the Center for Media and Democracy's Report
The FCC Finally Cracks Down on Fake News
CMD's first report in April 2006 snared 77 stations airing VNRs without disclosure. A follow-up study in November 2006, "Still Not the News," caught an additional 46 stations red-handed.
Free Press and CMD have filed a series of complaints with the FCC about fake news, and tens of thousands of concerned citizens have contacted the agency. In response, the FCC has finally started to act against stations airing fake news.
In September 2007, the FCC announced fines for Comcast for airing five separate VNRs on its CN8 channel without identifying their sponsors. But the FCC still needs to do more to stop widespread VNR abuse. It should start by taking action against the more than 100 other stations caught broadcasting VNRs without disclosure.
Put Your Local Station on Notice
The use of VNRs without sponsorship identification is a breach of the trust between local stations and their communities.
By disguising advertisements as news, stations violate both the spirit and the letter of their broadcasting licenses, which obligate them to use the public airwaves to serve the public.
Free Press and CMD continue to pressure federal agencies to guard our airwaves against the spread of fake news.
But to keep the pressure on, we need your help. You can send a strong message to the FCC: Enforce and clarify existing rules and penalize all broadcasters that air fake news.
Tell the FCC to Crack Down on Local News Deception
The Big Media Profit Motive
More than 80 percent of the stations snared in CMD's research are owned by large conglomerates. A list of the worst offenders reads like a who's who of Big Media, including stations owned by:
* Tribune Company (9 stations)
* Sinclair Broadcast Group (8 stations)
* News Corp/Fox Television (8 stations)
* Viacom/CBS Corp (6 stations)
The evidence suggests a strong tie between media consolidation and the use of deceptive, pre-packaged propaganda.
There's a reason for this: VNRs are free. Reporting news that's meaningful to local communities isn't. By opting to air a VNR instead of sending a reporter into the field, station owners save a fortune.
Corporate PR firms offer local stations VNRs knowing there's a built-in incentive to use them. By dressing up fake news as local reporting, stations cut costs and increase profits.
Tell the FCC to Stop Fake Local News
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)